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A RACING START— C. M. DANIELS. 



i 




U5 

Spalding " Red Cover" Series of * — i r-i j — ' 
Athletic Handbooks No. 36R I — . .— 






SPEED 
SWIMMING 



BY 

C. M. DANIELS 

ASSISTED BY 

L. DE B. Handley and O. Wahle 




PUBLISHED BY 

AMERICAN SPORTS PUBLISHING f] 



COMPANY 
21 Warren Street, New York 

D 









Copyright. 1919 

BY 

American Sports Publishing Company 
New York 



©aAJiiie44 

^EB 20 1919 



CONTENTS 



Preface , 
Introduction 
Learning to Swt.m . 

Preparatory Land Exercises 

Hints to the Beginner . 

The Breast Stroke 

The Side Stroke . 

The Trudgeon 

The Crawl 

Swimming on the Back 
Competitive Swimming- 
How to Choose One's Distance 

How to Train for a Race 

Hints About Racing 
Floating and Diving 

Plunge for Distance 

Diving . , 

Front Dive 

Back Dive 
Ornamental Swimming— 

The Rolling Log 

Swimming Like a Dog 

Somersaults 

Sculling . 

Swimming Backward 

The Torpedo 

The Ship . 

The Top , 

Monte Cristo 
Symposium on the Crawl Stroke 
Is It Harder to Swim in Fresh Water Than 
Water ..... 




OTTO WAHLE, 

New York A.C.; Member of A.A.D. Record Committee and World*. 

Swimming Authority. 



PREFACE 

In undertaking the task of giving to the public a short 
treatise on swimming I recognized the wisdom of obtaining 
the collaboration of someone well versed in theoretical as 
well as practical swimming. In looking about me I soon re- 
alized that I could do no better than in applying to either 
Mr. L. de B. Handley, or Mr. Otto Wahle. Both had had a 
brilliant competitive career; both had followed closely the 
development of swimming at home and abroad, and though 
only amateurs, had coached with »•- much success as any 
professionals in the country. I was lortunate in finding them 
only too glad to assist me, and with their aid I put together 
this book, trying to condense into a lew pages all that could 
be useful to the swimmer, aiming at clearness and brevity, 
and omitting all unnecessary stuff. 

Most of the illustrations are from photographs posed fot 
by representative exponents of the strokes, but owing to the 
difficulty experienced in getting proper effects with the camera, 
through water, I deemed it advisable to pose them on terra 
iirma. As a consequence, in several cases the body is so strained 
as to give a slightly erroneous impression, but the positions of 
the arms and legs are accurate both individually and in respect 
to each other, and the only fault lies in the fact that the legs 
are at times too far below the surface. The line drawn across illus- 
trations indicates approximate water-line. In taking these posi- 
tions in the water, however, the body will, of itself, correct the 
fault, and unconsciously the right balance will be established, 

C. M. Daniels. 




TEACHING THE NOVICE. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBEAET. 



INTRODUCTION 

Whole volumes have been devoted to telling why every man 
and woman should know how to swim, but the reasons may be 
concisely condensed into three : Swimming is a pleasant pas- 
time ; it is an exercise which develops the body symmetrically 
and thoroughly; and it is often the means of protecting and 
saving life. 

As a pastime it has few equals. The pleasures of bathing, 
whether outdoors in summer, or in a natatorium in winter, can 
only be fully appreciated by the good swimmers. The average 
man tires after a few spasmodic strokes and cannot possibly 
experience that exhilarating feeling that comes to the expert as 
he glides swiftly and easily through the "treacherous element" 
with absolute confidence in himself. 

Of the hygienic value of swimming, little need be said. Its 
very cleanliness insures hygiene ; for cleanliness is the founda- 
tion of good health, just as uncleanliness is the primary cause 
of disease. But on the subject of swimming as physical culture 
many erroneous beliefs are held which need correcting. To 
begin with, there are few exercises that will develop the body 
as symmetrically as will swimming; and by symmetrically I 
mean proportionately and from head to foot, with no muscle 
developed at the expense of another. One often hears the re- 
mark made that a swimmer has no muscles at all. It is true, 
in a way. He shows none of the bulging, knotty muscles of the 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 9 

professional poser. But those dean, smooth arms and legs of 
his are blessed with the only muscles that will benefit an ath- 
lete, the long, pliant, "working" muscles, that never tire and 
that don't know what it is to cramp or to bind. 

I have become so convinced of the value of swimming as an 
all round developer that I do not hesitate to advocate it as pre- 
liminary work for running, jumping, rowing, tennis, or any 
other branch of athletics, even to wrestling and weight lifting. 
There is no doubt that it improves the wind, and it has the 
great advantage of strengthening the muscles without hardening 
them. One emerges from a two or three weeks' period of train- 
ing in the pink of condition, yet feeling supple and free in every 
part of the body. And the very softness of one's muscles per- 
mits of the taking up of any other kind of exercise without 
fear of the soreness that comes from using another set of 
muscles than the one which has been hardened by exercising. 

An athlete of my acquaintance established, a few years ago, a 
world's record for that all round test called the Medley Race, 
in which six consecutive quarter miles have to be negotiated — 
walking, running, bicycling, horseback riding, rowing and swim- 
ming. I asked him one day how he ever managed to train for 
all these different events at the same time. "I didn't," he told 
me ; "I tried it when this competition was first instituted and 
although my time in the race was indifferent, I finished quite 
exhausted. In my second attempt at the record, I decided to 
give a trial to a system advocated by Alex Meffert, and the only 
training I did, was to swim two quarter miles every afternoon 
at an interval of fifteen minutes. It proved most successful. I 
felt strong up to the finish, I experienced no soreness then or 
after, and although I clipped fully two minutes off my previous 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. U 

performance I crossed the line in splendid condition. I believe 
swimming had made my muscles so supple that there was noth- 
ing to tire or to bind, and my wind and endurance just carrried 
me through." 

Those coaches and trainers who forbid their men going into 
the water during training, are either crassly ignorant or know 
their wards too well to trust them. The average athlete be- 
haves a good deal like a boy in school and tries to take a yard 
every time he is conceded an inch. If you allow him to take a 
swim during the summer he will interpret the permission into 
meaning that he may lie around the water by the hour; or, if it 
is winter, that he may spend half the day betweeii the hot room 
and the pool. Of course the next day he is unfit for work and 
complains of a tired feeling. Then the coach says : "Ah ! that 
swim," and anyone who says "swim" to him thereafter stirs up 
a row. I know, and no one can convince me to the contrary, 
that a daily swim of three or four minutes (as much as is 
needed to cover two or three hundred yards at a brisk pace) 
far from being injurious to an athlete will increase his snap and 
dash. 

Coming next to the question of its usefulness, it is undoubted 
that every man owes it to himself to be able to swim. We 
live so much on, in, and near the water that there are daily 
possibilities of being called upon to use our knowledge of swim- 
ming. Is not the fact that by it we may save ourselves, or oth- 
ers, from a ghastly death by drowning, a sufficient incentive to 
have us incur a little trouble in learning? What tragedies could 
be averted were everyone to give the subject a little thought. 

There seems to be a prevalent belief among parents that chil- 
dren should not be taught to swim until they are over ten years 




i ^K, 




SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. IS 

old and that to teach them younger is injurious to their health. 
Where the idea could have emanated, it is hard to understand, 
but it is rank nonsense. I have seen in England youngsters 
under seven who could use the complicated speed strokes just 
as prettily as grown-up experts, and their ruddy cheeks and 
sturdy young frames were tangible enough proofs of their not 
having suffered from their early training. It is the duty of 
every father and mother to see that their children are taught 
at the most tender age. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBBAET. 



LEARNING TO SWIM 

Before beginning the instructive text of .his book I want to 
say a word m regard to a question that swimming teachers and 
coaches are often asl<ed. It is • "VVhv »r. . „ 
f,„ ., ,. , " '^- ^^"y are "ot a!l swimmers 

taugh the same stroke in the same way?" The query is nat- 
ural, for one seldom sees two men swim alike, even when they 

ubteTh ""\^'™'^^- N--*^>-^ those men have ul 
doubtdly been taught in identically the same way; only, in each 
case the md.viduality of the pupi, has asserted itself and so 
wh,le both men are going through the movements as taugh 

em they are doing so in the manner best suited to their p!- 

o lut the,r arms above their head as in the first position of the 
rudgeon stroke and see if they don't all hold them up in a 
different way. Each is assuming his natural position and he 
will assume it when learning the stroke in the water. Now 
how can you expect these men to swim alike when they don't' 
ven OM t eir limbs in the same way? To the man wL ab- 
normal development of the shoulders an extreme reach is neith- 

and he will t,re much sooner than if a shorter one is used. To 
the supple, shght man, instead, there will be no difficulty in 
reachmg out and he will benefit by the added length of his 

AH. u" '""" ™'^ ^' '"'^ °^ '^''^ °"'^^ part of the stroke. 
And has the reader ever considered how an imperceptible change 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 1^ 

of time will affect the entire stroke? Of course it is not possi- 
ble to get arms and legs to start automatically at the exact frac- 
tion of a second, nor is it likely that the same time would suit 
everyone; inclination is a factor not to be disregarded. 

The lesson to be learned from this is that the best results are 
obtained by adapting the various movements to one's build; not 
by changing them, but by using them in such a manner as to 
place no unnatural strain on any part of the body. 



PREPARATORY LAND EXERCISES. 

Paradoxical though it may seem, the movements necessary in 
swimming are best acquired out of water and I strongly ad- 
vise the beginner to go through a period of land exercise before 
attempting to learn. Especially in the case of women and chil- 
dren I have found the system excellent. The fact is, people 
often have a morbid dread of the water (born probably of un- 
familiarity with it) and get so nervous in it that they are quite 
unable to keep their mind properly on what they are doing, 
while you teach them. On land, the action of both arms and 
legs, the correct way of breathing, and the respective time of all 
three can be practiced at ease until they become so familiar as 
to be gone through instinctively when one enters the water. 

The different parts of the stroke should first be taken up 
separately, beginning with the legs, then the arms and breathing, 
and finally all together. 

To master the leg movement, stand with heels together and 
hands on the hips. Lift right leg off the ground, pointing the 
knee outward until the heel almost touches the left knee, then 
straighten it out so that the ankles are about two feet apart and 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 19 

bring it briskly down to starting position. Do the same with 
the left leg and proceed, alternating them. 

To learn the arm stroke, begin by placing the hands at the 
height of the chest, about a foot below the chin, palms down, 
fingers close and pointing before you. Push the hands out par- 
allel to the ground until they are at full length. Turn palms 
outward (thumb down) and bring arms back, stiff at the elbow 
and still parallel to the ground, until they are at right angles to 
the body. In other worfis, let them describe a quarter of a circle. 
Then bend the elbow backwards and gradually turning the palms 
down again, return to original position. Repeat until familiar 
with. 

In breathing, you should inhale through the mouth and exhale 
through the nostrils. Inhale while the arms are coming back 
and exhale while they go forward. A suggestion made by the 
Hon. Sydney Holland I have found to work wonders. He tells 
novices to blow their hands away from them. The breathing in 
swimming should be easy, not short and hard. Begin to inhale 
as soon as the hands start down and manage so that you will 
just have filled your lungs by the time they reach the chest. 
Begin to exhale as they start forward and continue until they. 
are on the full reach. 

Now take the stroke all together. Start with the arms stretched 
out before you and as you bring them back, take a deep, slow 
breath. When the hands are about to reach the chest, bring up 
the right leg ; as the hands go forward straighten the leg out 
and when they are about to become extended, snap it down 
alongside of the other. On the next stroke let the left leg do Its 
Jvork, and continue, alternating them. 

Before entering the water it is advisable to learn to use both 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 21 

legs at the same time in connection with the rest of the stroke. 
You can do this by lying face down on a stool or chair. The 
position is not a very comfortable one, but you only need do a 
few minutes at a time of it and the work will certaintly benefit 
you a lot. 

In some books I have seen land drills for the trudgeon and 
crawl advocated as instructive. Personally, while I believe them 
an excellent exercise for developing the body, I do not think 
they teach anything. The strokes are far too complicated. It is 
an entirely different matter from the simple breast stroke move- 
ments, and it will be found much more satisfactory not to lose 
any time at them. 



HINTS TO THE BEGINNER. 

In undertaking the actual task of swimming, salt water is pre- 
ferable to fresh, because it has more sustaining power. Whether 
you have indulged in land exercises or not you will find it hard 
to support yourself, at first, and if you can find water about four 
or five feet deep, where you can touch bottom at will, if you get 
nervous, I should advise your doing so. 

Most instructors are in favor of cork belts, white wings, in- 
flated bags, and other floating devices for beginners ; but I think 
them a mistake. Swimming is entirely a question of balance, as 
the body floats naturally, and all artificial buoying-up destroys 
the right idea of how to hold one's self. I realize that one learns 
more readily when no effort has to be made to keep above water, 
but there is a way of giving support without affecting the bal- 
ance. Place a canvas belt or a strip of cloth around your chest, 
'^<' a thin piece of rope to it and attach the end of this rope to a 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 2S 

short stick, as on Page 6. The instructor or a friend can hold the 
stick while you practice, placing on it only sufficient pressure to 
keep you afloat. How little this is you will understand by watch- 
ing a performer in the plunge for distance; without moving a 
muscle he keeps on the surface indefinitely. The belt system has 
the advantage of allowing the holder to gradually diminish the 
sustaining pressure until, without being conscious of it, one 
swims without support. 

If you cannot find help it may be best, Jn case of nervous- 
ness, to provide yourself with white wings or an inflated bag; 
then let out the air a little at a time, until you become used to 
swimming without props at all. 

The position of the body is an all-important matter in swim, 
ming, for it is position that insures the proper balance. One 
often sees the beginner floundering along with head thrown back 
to such an angle that it looks about to fall off, and this, besides 
placing a terrible strain on the neck, brings the feet far too low- 
in the water, retarding progress. The position is generally due 
to faulty breathing, for in breathing properly there is no need 
to crane the neck to get air. Just watch a good swimmer of 
the breast stroke and notice his easy position, half the time 
mouth is under water as on Page lo. That is the correct way to 
carry the head. While the arms are coming back, their applied 
power lifts the body and brings the mouth well above water; 
then is the time to inhale; later, as the hands go forward, the 
mouth sinks below the surface and one exhales under water, 
preferably through the nostrils. Pay great attention to the 
breathing, it is the secret of easy swimming. 

In learning to swim never hurry the movements, haste is the 
negation of form and you can only acquire the correct stroke by 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 25 

making every move a slow, careful one, thinking all the time 
of what you are doing. 

If you have taken no preparatory land exercise before tackling 
the stroke, or if you find that the movements don't come to you 
at once in the water, you had better try the various parts sep- 
arately, as advocated previously, until you have mastered them 
thoroughly. 

THE BREAST STROKE. 

Racing men as a rule are wont to look upon the breast stroke 
as useless and obsolete as proved by the fact that efforts have 
been miade to have it stricken from the list of championship 
events. 

The men guilty of this senseless move can not have given the 
subject very careful consideration. On a long swim, whether 
forced on one by chance or taken for pleasure, nothing is more 
restful than a short change from the speed strokes to the breast. 
And as to its usefulness, it is the only stroke, barring the back 
stroke, that will allow one to make shore with a victim in case 
of a rescue from drowning. 

To learn the breast stroke, lie comfortably on the surface so 
that your feet are only a few inches below it and your mouth is 
just under water. Place legs together and straight, toes pointing 
back, arms extended in front, hands touching, fingers closed, and 
palms down. In starting to swim, turn the palms outward, 
thumbs down, and, keeping the elbow stiff, draw the arms back 
just below the surface and parallel to it until at right angles to 
the body; then bend the elbow backward and gradually turning 
the palms down, bring the hands together at the chest; then 
shoot them forward to starting position. The legs are not moved 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 27 

until the hands approach the chest, then they are drawn up, 
knees out, heels together; when the hands start forward the 
legs are kicked out straight without closing them, and as the 
arms get to the full reach the legs are snapped sharply together. 
In this position the body, driven by the impetus of the kick, is 
allowed to "slide" until the momentum is all but exhausted, when 
the arms are started again. Of course, though the various parts 
of the stroke are described separately, in action they are run into 
one another so closely as to produce a smooth, continuous 
motion. 

THE SIDE STROKE. 

I hesitated some time before giving this stroke space. It is 
one of the racing strokes that has seen its day, and is slowly 
passing away. Nevertheless it is used by many coaches to pre- 
pare the pupil for the more complicated trudgeon, and it un- 
doubtedly facilitates the acquisition of the scissor kick, so I will 
give the way to learn it. 

The body rests on the water with one shoulder down, and it 
will be well, at first, to hang on to some stationary support to 
practice this kick. It is absolutely different from the old frog 
kick and not easy to learn properly, so don't get discouraged if 
you fail to become perfect after half an hour's trial. Things 
that are worth while do not come as rapidly as that. The first 
movement of the scissor kick consists in bringing the upper 
leg forward quite stiff at the knee and the under one back to a 
kneeling position. The under leg should not be moved from the 
hip, but from the knee. The action of the scissor kick should 
be front and back, just as in walking, with no side motion at 
all. When the toes of the under leg are two to three feet from 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 29 

the heel of the upper one (according to one's size) the legs are 
brought smartly together. The ankles are bent up just as the 
legs separate and then return to their original position as the 
legs close. Particular pains should be taken to keep the upper 
leg rigid; it comes instinctively to bend it and unless you exag- 
gerate in practice you will not hold it properly later. In bending 
the knee, a resisting surface is presented to the water which off- 
sets all the good derived from the kick. The opening of the 
legs should be done very slowly, as a sudden movement in this, 
acts like a brake, and they should be brought together with a 
snap. It is a fault to open the legs too wide, as it increases the 
resistance. 

For the arm action, place your arms above the head, palms 
turned away from the face. Bring upper arm down smartly, with 
elbow rigid, hand the least bit spooned, fingers together. Carry 
through the water just below the surface, describing a semi- 
circle to end at the thigh, then bend the elbow and bring it for- 
ward well above water until on the full reach again. The under 
arm should be started just as the upper one finishes and brought 
down parallel to it, so that it brushes the lower thigh; then the 
elbow is bent and the arm is shot forward below the surface, 
palm down. Breath is taken as the upper arm comes down and 
exhaled as the under arm goes forward. The legs are opened as 
the upper arm starts down, and snapped back as it finishes. The 
side stroke should give a smooth run with no jerks. 

THE TRUDGEON. 
A thing which I omitted in the side stroke, but now becomes a 
necessity, is a coach. This point I must emphasize before pro- 
ceeding any further. Swimming is a sport different from most 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 31 

Others inasmuch as the pupil cannot see what he is doing and 
often falls into serious faults without being aware of it. These, 
if not corrected ^at once, become chronic. The coach should be 
an expert, if possible, though anyone is better than no one ; only, 
it is essential that faults should be corrected and the uninitiated 
cannot very well tell you how. 

The trudgeon is the least tiring of strokes, when its relative 
speed is considered, and may be used for any distance. It is 
my opinion that a judicious alternating of the breast and the 
trudgeon will tire less and give better results than the use of the 
under- and over-arm side strokes. 

The trudgeon is a double over-arm stroke combined with the 
above described scissor kick. In not a few cases, however, it has 
been modified by an additional fluttering of the lower leg as the 
under arm goes forward. This keeps the body moving until the 
upper arm is ready to start downward again. That the name of 
trudgeon should be given to this new form .of stroke is rather 
odd, as it does not resemble it very closely, but then, ''trudgeon" 
has come to be a sort of generic appellation to be given to any 
variety of double over-arm. 

In learning the trudgeon the swimmer should take up the 
more simple kind, adding the crawl flutter later, if found ad- 
visable. The kick is the first thing to study and if one has tried 
the side stroke the arm action only will have to be practiced, as 
the scissor kick is used in both. I will remark here, though, that 
it is a great mistake to pass from one part of the stroke to an- 
other until the first has been thoroughly mastered. The trud- 
geon is far too complicated a stroke to allow of its being learned 
all together. Therefore, until that scissor kick is perfect, do not 
attempt to go any further. 



SPALDING'S ATHl^iUTlC LIBRARY. 33 

When you feel confident of being an adept kicker, take up 
breathing. It is essential that this most important part of the 
stroke be acquired before bothering with the arms. To learn 
to breathe properly, lie flat on the water, face down, and begin 
by freeing the lungs of air, blowing it out under water, slowly 
and easily. Do not attempt to clear the lungs with one power- 
ful blow, but let the air out gradually ; it should take at least 
three or four seconds. This done, turn your head from the 
shoulders, to the side the upper arm is going to be, and take a 
long, deep breath, without haste. When the lungs are full, twist 
the head back and exhale under water as before, through the 
nostrils. Repeat until the method has lost its strangeness. 

In choosing a side to swim on, consult inclination. If you feel 
more comfortable on the right, adopt that side, but if you are 
equally at ease on both sides, swim with the right shoulder down, 
as this brings up the left flank and relieves the heart of a good 
deal of pressure that is placed upon it in swimming the other way. 

For the arm movement let the body rest on the water with 
hands at full reach above the head, palms down. This is the 
first and last position of the stroke. In catching the water the 
body is rolled a little and the head twisted around to bring the 
mouth above the surface. The palms are turned a wee bit tt) 
the side the body turns, and the upper arm is brought down with 
a strong, steady pull-^elbow fairly rigid, wrist the kast bit bent 
down, fingers together — until straight down alongside, then Ithe 
elbow is bent and the arm brought forward well above water. 
The semi-circle described by the arm in the trudgeon is not like 
in the side stroke, parallel to the water, but almost at right 
angles to it. It is at right angles to the body, really, and as 
the body is rolled, the angle becomes more acute. Some men. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 85 

in swimming distance, roll until the arms are at an angle of about 
45 degrees. The under arm is started just as the upper finishes, 
except in some cases. I have seen distance men "slide" for sev- 
eral yards, holding the upper arm alongside and the under one 
on the full reach, to be brought down only as the momentum 
died away. The under arm follows the same orbit that does the 
upper one, almost parallel to it; as it reaches its completion the 
body is rolled back on its face, the elbow bent, and the arm shot 
forward as the other, clear of the water; just as it gets to the 
full reach the upper arm is started down again. 

I have remarked already that in distance swimming the body 
rolls strongly; in sprinting, instead, it travels almost flat on the 
water, so that breath has to be taken by a rapid twist of the 
head from the shoulders. Also the elbows are bent a bit more in 
sprintinj to facilitate a quicker stroke, and instead of going 
straight down, the}- pull a little to each side, finishing at the 
hip instead of at the thigh. 

In swimming the whole stroke, the time to be followed is : 
Upper arm first; legs are opened up as it starts and snapped 
together as it finishes ; under arm comes down next ; upper arm 
starts the recovery as the under arm catches the water and be- 
gins another stroke as the under arm lifts to go forward. Breath 
is inhaled while the upper arm is pulling and exhaled while the 
under arm recovers, 

THE CRAWL. 

This stroke, which experts have come to look upon as the 
stroke of the future, is a combination of an abbreviated over-arm 
and a peculiar leg drive learned by the Australians from the na- 
tives of the South Sea Islands. The leg drive cannot be called 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. <• 37 

a kick; it is a continuous up and down alternate thrash of the 
lower legs from the knee down. In Australia the action of the 
arms and legs is synchronous, that is, the right arm comes back 
as the left leg goes down, and vice versa. In America, with few 
exceptions, the arms and legs are worked independently, and the 
thrash has a narrower scope, the legs being opened less. 

That our system is the best seems undoubted, if theory counts 
for anything in swimming. Mr. Robert Sandon, whom I con- 
sider one of the world's leading authorities on aquatic matters, 
explains the reason in a manner that I think convincing. He 
asks us to watch the flight of a flat stone that has been thrown 
hard along the surface of the water, and note its progress. So 
long as the flat side strikes the water it bounces on without a 
check until its momentum ceases, but, let even the smallest por- 
tion of it become immersed and it is brought to a sudden stop, 
its flight checked instantly, never mind how great its speed. Ap- 
ply this to swimming, now. In the trudgeon, or even in the 
Australian crawl, when swum easily, there is a time when the 
propelling forces pause, the body sinks lower in the water, and a 
check is noted ; in some swimmers a very decided one. In the 
American crawl, instead, the continuous action of the legs keeps 
the body constantly in motion, so that there is no check or 
sinking and the stroke must perforce be faster. Of course, in 
sprinting with the Australian crawl the pause is so infinitesimal 
that there can be little advantage over it in the American stroke, 
but as it is very probable that eventually we will use the crawl 
for all distances, the point is not to be overlooked. A small 
number of Americans have adopted the Australian stroke, wnth 
its wide and synchronous thrash, but have added a fluttering of 
the feet between arm strokes, which makes the action continuous. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 3S 

The relative time of the arms and legs, in the American crawl, 
can best be determined by the individual or his coach; one with 
strong arms and weak legs can adopt a rapid arm motion and a 
slow kick ; one with strong legs can do the contrary. This is 
one of the stroke's best features, for it can be fitted to each per- 
son. Some of our best men use the arms almost entirely, and 
one at least, Mr. H. J. Handy, of Chicago, lets his legs trail be- 
hind him. He tried the kick, but found he could not swim with- 
out tiring when using it, so he abandoned it. Others can go al- 
most as fast with legs alone as when using the arms. 

A good deal of discussion has been raised in regard to whether 
the ankles should move or not in the crawl. Mr. Gus Sundstrom, 
instructor at the New York Athletic Club, who was indirectly 
responsible for the introduction of the crawl in America and 
who has more speed with the leg drive alone than any man I 
have seen, not only bends the ankles back and forth, but he says 
it is by doing it that he gets his wonderful speed. His drive is 
more of a pedaling motion, he brings the toes up as the leg rises 
and points them down as the leg snaps back. A few of our 
swimmers also move the ankle a little, but most of them keep it 
rigid. At the present stage we cannot say positively which is 
the better method, but from Mr. Sundstrom's success we should 
say using them is. 

There are as many varieties of the crawl nowadays as there 
are men using it. No two swim it alike and each indulges in a 
little experimenting of his own. This will gradually lead to 
progress, and it is probable that as the men discard the ineffi- 
cient details in favor of the successful ones, the different var- 
ieties will condense into definite strokes from which the best 
will eventually be picked, 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 41 

To learn the American crawl, start with the arms. In fact, 
you will probably do well not to try the legs at all until you can 
swim a good fifty with your arms only. Lie flat on the water, 
with arms a little bent at the elbow and stretched out above your 
head. The wrists should be just beyond your head and the arms 
a Httle more open than in the trudgeon, hands bent down a little. 
Catch the water with a decided snap and drive them through at 
a brisk pace, always bent at the elbow, until they reach the hip, 
then lift them clear of the water and carry them forward with 
elbow well up in the air. The arms being started wider apart 
than in the trudgeon, they are also brought down further apart. 
The under arm is started just as the upper one finishes. 

For the kick, move the legs up and down alternately, keeping 
them stiff at the hip and holding the knees close together. There 
is little difficulty in learning this, if one knows how it should be 
done, but the best way, after reading the description, is to 
watch it in action. To imitate it without having read it up, is 
not easy, and to acquire it without seeing it is harder still, but 
with the help of both a few days of practice will be sufficient. 
Don't open the feet more than twelve or eighteen inches from 
heel to toe. The real difficulty in the crawl is in working the 
arms and legs into a smooth stroke, and also in learning to hold 
the tiring leg drive over a given distance. Both are a matter of 
practice. 

The position of the body in the crawl is flat on the face, much 
like when sprinting with the trudgeon ; there should be hardly 
any rolling and breath should be taken only every two or three 
strokes by a quick twist of the head as the upper arm is being 
brought down. The time for exhaling is as the under arm goes 
forward. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 43 

When the crawl is swum slowly, as it is over the distances, the 
arm stroke is lengthened, so as to resemble that of the trudgeon, 
and the legs are slowed according to the distance ; then breath is 
taken at every stroke. 

SWIMMING ON THE BACK. 

Those few who are students of the back stroke have attempted 
to adapt the latest speed strokes to back swimming and while the 
success achieved has not proved decisively the superiority of any 
one form, there are three strokes now being used. The first is a 
counterpart of the breast stroke, altered only enough to suit the 
different positions. The arms, instead of recovering in the water, 
are lifted into the air to get to the full reach, and the action much 
resembles that of a windmill. The second has this same arm 
action with the leg drive of the crawl, and the third is identical, 
except inasmuch as the arms move alternately as in the trudgeon, 
instead of together, as in the breast stroke. Of course, in alter- 
nating, a decided roll is given to the body. 

To learn the plain back stroke, lie flat on the water, as in 
floating, with arms fully extended above your head, hands flat, 
palms turned upward. This position also ends the stroke and 
should be held while the body is allowed to "run," after the legs 
have kicked. In bringing down the arms, catch the water sharply 
with hands back to back, palms outward, and pull them through 
with a steady pull, stiff at the elbow, describing a semi-circle just 
below the surface and parallel to it. When the arms are along- 
side, turn palms downward and keeping them rigid, carry them 
to the full reach by waving them up well clear of the water. 
The legs are held close together, toes down, until the arms start 
their recovery, then they are bent up, and open, just like in the 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 45 

breast stroke kick, and they are snapped together as the arms 
atta*«i the full reach, when the body, now in original position, is 
let "glide" until the momentum imparted by the kick wears off. 
Then another arm stroke is started. It is really the action and 
time of the breast stroke. 

For the two other varieties the work of each individual arm 
and leg is the same and the leg drive has been described 
in detail in connection with the crawl. The time, in either, may 
be suited to oneself as the arms and legs work independently 
of each other. 

Swimming on the back is best adapted to men with long, 
strong arms, so that tall people generally turn out its best ex- 
ponents. It is not a popular method of natation, and many 
look upon it as a very useless accomplishment. This it is not by 
«ny means, though, for in life saving it is used with great 
success. 



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SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 



COMPETITIVE SWIMMING 



HOW TO CHOOSE ONE'S DISTANCE. 
Every man, in deciding to enter the competitive field as a 
swimmer has some idea as to whether he wants to become a 
sprinter or a distance swimmer, for nine times out of ten it 
is the realization of one's possibilities that leads to racing. In 
either case, there are but two strokes worth taking up, the trud- 
geon and the crawl. For a sprinter the crawl is undoubtedly the 
one to adopt and many maintain that it is also the fastest dis- 
tance stroke. Learned for the purpose, and timed accordingly, 
there is no reason why it should not give the best results. The 
fact that it is admittedly the speediest sprinting stroke proves 
beyond question that the movements are the best and that it is 
merely a case of making them just slow enough to be held over 
the distance to be covered. Several swimmers have negotiated 
the mile in competition with it, so that we know it can be 
done. The aspirant to distance honors can lose nothing by givmg 
it a trial; it is easy to revert to the trudgeon if it proves unsat- 
isfactory. And in advocating a trial, I do not mean for the 
candidate to tr}^ to hold the vertiginous fifty yard speed over a 
half mile or mile course, an attempt most novices make, but 
the swimming of easy stretches, say of two or three hundred 
yards, very slowly and paying close attention to form. Not one 
out of ten has a really good conception of pace, and few men 
seem even to appreciate that pace must be adjusted to the distance 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 49 

before one. They will start out on a long swim, especially if 
they are trying a stroke that is new to them, as if they were 
going only fifty yards, and of course they die out before the 
hundred mark is reached. I believe this to be the reason that at 
the appearance of both the trudgeon and the crawl everyone pre- 
dicted that they would never be held over the furlong. 

Whether it is best for one to become a sprinter or distance 
swimmer cannot very well be ascertained until a good deal of 
racing has been done. Everyone begins at the sprints, and if 
one is better fitted to the distances he will soon find it out with- 
out being told. The knowledge comes instinctively. 

In taking up racing, or in deciding to, the prospective competi- 
tor should bear in mind that the only way to succeed is to 
learn the stroke correctly and thoroughly before attempting any 
fast work at all. To race with a faulty stroke is simply to de- 
velop and confirm one's faults and to doom oneself to mediocrity. 
Many youngsters who win their novice race, and possibly some 
other unimportant event by brute strength, firmly believe that 
they are on the high road to success, and neglect form alto- 
gether, with the result that they never accomplish anything. Form 
is indispensable nowadays ; we have progressed so far towards 
scientific swimming that even the most favored by nature will 
never reach the championship class unless through form. The 
temptation is great to start racing as soon as speed appears, and 
one's first prizes look very enticing, but a little self denial and 
early application will amply repay in the long run. 

HOW TO TRAIN FOR A RACE. 
It is probable that no two men train alike for a swimming 
race and it is quite certain that most of them should not train 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 6J 

alike. With the exception of a few generalities no rockbound 
rules can be set down ; each must learn by experience what is 
best for him. Some men will only round into form after going 
through work that would send others stale in jig time; and 
again some thrive on food that would be cuite unfit for others. 
It is a matter of idiosyncrasies. 

In regard to food I believe that a mixed diet, with meat in 
moderation and plenty of fresh vegetables and ripe fruit, can be 
recommended to everyone. Prominent dietiticians of the day 
have come to the conclusion that meat is not necessary to the 
training athlete, and it has been my experience that fat produc- 
ing foods are best for the swimmer. Meat is said to give 
strength while keeping down weight, but an aquatic competitor 
does not want to be down fine, he will do much better work if a 
few pounds above normal. The extra avoirdupois adds to the 
buoyancy, makes impervious to cold, and gives that reserve en- 
ergy that is so often the deciding factor in a closely contested 
race. Eat heartily, therefore, and only avoid those notably in- 
digestible foods such as pastry, pork, veal, lobsters, etc. ; though 
mdeed, in the early part of training even these may be taken in 
moderation with impunity, if thoroughly masticated. This eat- 
ing slowly and chewing the food properly is the great secret of 
a healthy digestion. During the fortnight preceding competi- 
tion, however, the swimmer should become discriminating and 
be extremely careful of what he eats and drinks. Ice water is 
net conducive to digestion, in fact it retards it materially by 
lowering the temperature of the stomach. Take of it sparingly 
throughout your training, and drink in preference cocoa, milk, 
water at an even temperature; or, ale, beer and claret in small 
quantities Between meals good filtered, or spring: water, is most 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 53 

beneficial. Coffee, tea, intoxicants, stimulants, and drugs of all 
kinds had best be left alone altogether in training, and tobacco 
should not be used under any consideration. 

One more very important point and I pass to the work to be 
done. Don't cut your sleep. Sleep is nature's great panacea for 
all ills, its own means of replenishing the exhausted storage bat- 
teries of strength and energy. If we want to be in good condition 
we must give her sufficient time to do her good work. Plenty of 
sleep is an absolute necessity to the training athlete ; he should 
have at least eight hours a night. Staying up late is also bad 
for you, even if you get your eight hours ; the hours before mid- 
night are the most beneficial and your curfew should not ring 
later than 10.30. 

In regard to work, much depends on the distance in sight, on 
the time at one's disposal, and on the constitution of the swim- 
mer. A distance man requires more time than a sprinter, a 
strong constitution allows more work than a weak one and, of 
course, if you have one or three months to train in makes all 
the difference in the division of your training. In no case, how- 
ever, should less than a month be taken. 

Experience is really the only efficient teacher; each man must 
work out his own system, or his coach must do it for him, but 
for the novice I can advocate one that having proved satisfac- 
tory in many instances may be safely recommended. It will 
serve the purpose until a personal system has been evolved. 

Most novices, either through anxiety to enter competition, or 
through ignorance of what should be, limit their training time 
to two or three weeks, so that I will not extend it to over a 
month, but I will advise a longer period whenever it is possible. 

The first week should be devoted to improving the general con- 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

dition of the body and almost any kind of healthy exercise will 
do this. It should be borne in mind, though, that to swim, the 
muscles must be supple so that any work so heavy as to harden 
them is detrimental to speed. Running, lifting heavy dumbbells, 
wrestling and like exercises are not advisable. A daily swim, 
during the first week, is beneficial but not essential. If you swim 
every day take only short, easy stretches of fifty and one hun- 
dred yards, going through the movements slowly, so as to ac- 
quire form. 

During the second week the land exercises should be cut down 
to a very few minutes, and the swims lengthened. It is only by 
perfecting the stroke that one progresses and it cannot be per- 
fected in sprinting; faults are emphasized by fast, exhausting 
work. To correct them take easy, careful swims, increasing the 
distance gradually, and always having some one to look over your 
work and coach you. 

Dr. Shell advises swimming only three times a week, while 
training, and I mention this opinion because he has devoted a 
deal of time and study to the question, but I must admit that I 
differ from him, and that I think one day of rest a week is quite 
sufficient. 

The distance to be gone on the first day of the second week is 
two hundred yards, and it should be increased daily by fifty 
yards, the last day's swim being a good hard quarter under the 
watch. Not what is understood as a time trial, but just a quarter 
at a brisk pace. In fact I believe one's individual laps should be 
timed all through training, whether one goes fast or slowly. 
These will tell how even a pace is hdd and little by little make 
one a good judge of pace. A few champions I have known grew 
so accustomed to this timing- that they could suspend a stop watch 




POSITION IN THE HIGH DIVE. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 57 

just above the surface of the water and time themselves, so that 
in a trial they knew just when to increase or slacken their speed. 
This only comes after much practice, though, for one has to re- 
member the time of every other lap. 

On the third week only aquatic work should be indulged in, 
the swimmer alternating short sprints one day with distances the 
next. If your race is at the furlong, or under, go about 300 
yards on the distance days and sprint 50 and 100 yards on the 
others. If your race is at the quarter, alternate quarters and 
sprints; if over, lengthen the stretches gradually, making them 
600, 750, and 880, if you are to go thei half, and 880, 1,320, and 
1,760, if you are going the mile. In going these distances a good 
steady pace should be held. Not racing speed, because, form must 
still be aimed at, but fast enough to get one used to hard work 
and, as said before, under the watch. Never sprint at the end 
of these long swims — it is injurious. It is bad enough to have 
to put the terrific strain on the heart in a race. Try to keep an 
even pace throughout. 

On the first day of the last week make a time trCal over the 
entire course, whatever it be, and swim it just as you would a 
race. On the second day take only an easy stretch of at most 
200 yards ; on the third, another time trial ; on the fourth, a few 
starts, with a couple of 25 yard sprints, and on the eve of the 
race absolute rest. 

In training for a sprint it will do no harm to go time trials 
twice a week throughout the period of training. And, of course, 
if two months of preparation can be indulged in, the system must 
be modified accordingly. For two months the doubling of the 
week's work will prove satisfactory, except that the distances 
may be lengthened more gradually. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 0^ 

An important item in indoor racing is the turn. Experts esti- 
mate that a good turner gains from one-fifth to four-fifths of a 
second on a bad one at each turn, so that in a mile race held in 
a sixty-foot tank the bad turner would be handicapped one min- 
ute and ten seconds, or in the neighborhood of one hundred 
yards. 

In learning the turn the first thing to tackle is the approach 
of the wall; it must be timed so as to reach it with the turning 
arm stretched out in front. This is done by taking a couple of 
long strokes, or two or three short ones, as the wall is neared. 
When the hand touches the wall, which it does just above the 
waterline, the palm is laid down on it, the fingers pointing in the 
direction the body is going to circle, and parallel to the surface. 
The body is now swung around, help'ed by the under arm, which 
is stretched alongside, so that the soles of the feet come into 
contact with the wall, a few inches below the surface. Now the 
hands are brought rapidly to the hip, palms pointing in front, 
fingers down, and they give a backward stroke, which brings 
the body right against the wall, with the hips nearly touching 
it. Then the arms are put forward, as in starting the trudgeon, 
the legs are straightened out suddenly with a snap, and the body 
is allowed to travel on the impetus of the push-off until it slows 
down, when the arms take a stroke. The legs do not move until 
the arms are recovering, when they fall into their proper action. 
It is a great mistake to try to kick before the arms have taken 
a full stroke. Many swimmers take advantage of the turn to get 
a deep breath; it is taken as on Page 50, just before the hands take 
the backward stroke to force the body in position for the push-off. 
The starting dive is also an important part of racing, specially 
in sprinting. A fast, shallow dive should be adopted. Performed 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 61 

slowly, this racing dive would be an over-balanc'm^ of the body' 
forward, with a mighty spring, aided by arms an4 l&gs, as. it" 
passes beyond its center of gravity. Stand with body bent for- 
ward, or with knees slightly bent. As the signal is given get on 
tiptoe and swing your arms back, much as in jumping; then 
swmg them forward as the body falls over, bend well on your , 
knees, lower your heels and spring out with head erect, arms 
extended over your head, palms d0wn. These are the move- 
ments dissected, but of course in diving they are gone through 
so quickly as to make just one rapid spring. Try to strike the 
water with arms, body and legs in a straight Ime, ',t such an 
angle that you will only sink a few inches. To gj deep is to 
kill your speed. As the hands touch the water, afji the back 
a little, pointing the hands up, so as to get to the surface at 
once and then set the arms going, remembering <iflat, like in the 
turn, the legs must not be moved until the arais have taken a 
stroke and are recovering. 

Coming now to the hygienic details of trj^ining, it may be 
pointed oul that too much indulgence in the steam and hot 
rooms is as injurious a habit as it is prevalent. Three or four 
minutes of heat, preferably in the steam room, are quite suf- 
ficient to open the pores, and more is weakening. As for sitting 
in the steam room by the half hour, a thing training swimmers 
often do, it is the death of snap. 

Long stays in the water are also conducive to sluggishness, 
and standing around the pool wet is responsible for a long list 
of ills. This noted, make it a principle to limit yourself to at 
most five minutes of steam, then a swim, a good brisk rub as 
soon as you come out of the water, and if you want to stay in 
the natatorium after, a warm bath robe and slippers. 




LUDY LANGER 
Captain University of California Swimming Team. American Champion at 440 
yards. 500 yards, 880 yards and one-mile swims ; world's record holder for 500 
yards, and American open water record holder for 440 yards, 880 yards and one mile. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 68 

It is a wise move to stuff the ears with cotton on entering the 
water and to change this wet cotton for dry, on coming out. 
The dry absorbs all the moisture and prevents ear trouble, so 
prevalent among careless swimmers. 

During the winter the hair should be dried very thoroughly 
and the body allowed to cool off before leaving the natatorium 
building. To go into the freezing atmosphere outside, espe- 
cially with wet hair, from the torrid temperature of the bath 
is enough to give pneumonia to even the strongest. 

On the day of the race, don't make the mistake of changing all 
your habits, as so many athletes do, thinking it is the proper 
thing. We are such creatures of habit that the slightest change 
affects us. Try to follow the lines of your daily life; if you take 
coffee and steak for breakfast don't change to milk and eggs, 
though, of course, if your race is at one and you usually eat a 
hearty meal at twelve, the case changes aspect. Use judgment, 
and eat very sparingly, unless you have three or four hours to 
digest in. But, above all, keep your mind busy and don't worry 
over the issue of the race. Worry saps up L^^ure energy than 
the hardest kind of physical work. 

HINTS ABOUT RACING. 
If I have been asked once, I have been asked a hundred times 
by ambitious youngsters whether it is best to sprint at the be- 
ginning, in the mddle, or at the end of a race. The correct 
way of racing, in theory, is not to sprint at all, but to find the 
fastest gait one can hold over the distance to go, and to hold 
it. Unluckily, we are all such poor judges of pace that it^s next 
to impossible for us to apportion our energy equally over the 
course so that it will just run out in the last few yards. We 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, 1912, 

George Hodgson, Montreal A.A.C. ; winner of 400 meters and 1500 meters 

swims In world's record time. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 65 

either kill ourselves by early sprinting or reserve energy for a 
sensational finish which would have been far better employed 
sooner. 

I consider good judgment in pacing the most valuable asset of 
the fast swimmer. It is undoubtedly the pace that kills, the pace 
above the individual's normal one for the distance, and a pun- 
ishing sprint, whether mdulged in at the start or at any other 
part of a race, is harmful, and detrimental to the best results. 
Distributed evenly over the entire course the extra strength 
needed for that sprint would have made the final time better. 
Fast men are often seen to "lay back," sprint away from an 
opponent and then slow down, and do all sorts of jockeying. 
Put down anything you see in this line to play to the galleries 
and in very bad taste. A man who feels certain of victory should 
be enough of a sportsman not to try to bring ridicule on his 
opponent, and the man who is not certain of victory will find it 
far more profitable to swim his own race without bothering about 
what his adversaries are doing and by holding a steady gait. 
To allow oneself to be drawn out by an early sprint, or to lay 
back, is always folly. 

It is rather a common habit to try to steal on the starter, and 
not a few take pride in being experts at it. It is bad policy 
even apart from the fact that one should not take unfair advan- 
tage of one's opponent. An impartial referee will disqualify any- 
one guilty of stealing and the swimmer may find it decidedly un- 
pleasant if hv. ^oses a prize after having won a hard-fought 
race, just because he took an unfair advantage that he may not 
have needed. 

Another bad mistake is to enter into noisy arguments with an 
official, to challenge the decision of the judges and to use un- 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, 1912 

H. J. Hebner, Illinois Athletic Club, Chicago; winner of 100 meters, back 

stroke race and member of American team which finished second'. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 67 

parliamentary language. These things are offensive to every one 
present. Just place yourself in the position of the questioned 
official and try to think how you would like it if a shouting and 
gesticulating contestant threw the taunt of unfairness at you, 
or became profane to you. A quiet, gentlemanly remonstrance 
will always be listened to, and if fair, probably heeded. But a 
noisy or abusive one will even turn a wavering judge against 
the protestant. 

When your instincts urge you to a strenuous objection, remem- 
ber that it is the wise man who keeps on the right side of the 
officials. Nothing is ever gained by loud and boisterous tactica. 




THE DIVING TOWER USED IN 1906 CHAMPIONSHIPS. HELD AT 
ST. LOUIS. MO. (DR. SHELDON DIVING). 



•SPILDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 69 



FLOATING AND DIVING 



Floating is a mere question of balance, so that to learn how 
one must find a position in which the dead weight of the body is 
distributed evenly, above and below the buoyant center, the 
lungs. The legs will be found to overbalance the head and 
shoulders and in most cases the feet sink. This can be ob- 
viated by throwing the head back and by extending the arms at 
full length above the head; the additional leverage generally 
establishes the balance and brings the feet up. But if it should 
not prove sufficient the legs may be opened first, and if even 
this is not enough, brought up bent at the knees. Floating is 
greatly facilitated by breathing in such a manner that the lungs 
are kept partially full of air all the time. Try to allow the air to 
get as low as possible in the lungs, and then, by short breaths, 
keep it there. Deep breathing and long exhaling should be 
avoided. 

Women float more readily than men, and stout people better 
than slight ones, but even the slightest can learn. To learn, get 
into water where you have a footing and placing your arms over 
your head let yourself drop backwards very slowly, arching the 
spinC; and throwing the head back. Don't breathe until you have 
settled, as the face generally sinks for a second as you fall and 
then comes above water again. If you don't float at once try 
bending the legs as told above. 

Floating is not only an enjoyable pastime, it is a mosf useful 
accomplishment. Should one tire on a long swim, or be wrecked 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 7J 

where it is not possible to make land for hours, floating not only 
allows a complete rest, but one may keep on top indefinitely by 
it, even when exhausted, and in case of a cramp it is indispen- 
sable. 

PLUNGE FOR DISTANCE. 

Here, too, we find a question of balance, and it is really noth- 
ing but floating on one's face, the position being identical As in 
floating, it is very important to keep the lower portion of the 
lungs well filled with air, and as there is no breathing to be 
done it is not as hard. 

Good plungers are stout men, as a rule, with large shoulders 
and comparatively light legs; but there are exceptions, and even 
sHght men with good lung capacity will be able to hold out the 
sixty seconds allowed by rules, if their position is good. 

There are three points to be considered in plunging; the dive, 
the position of the body in the water, and the direction; the 
dive gives speed, the proper position enables one to retain it, 
and, of course, direction is essential in competition, when to 
touch the wall is to lose all the following distance. 

The dive to be taken in plunging is the shallow dive described 
as the racing dive. Before starting, the lungs must be cleaned 
out by two or three long, deep breaths, and then filled well. The 
dive must be made as speedy as possible and as soon as the body 
strikes the water all tension of the muscles should be relaxed and 
an effort should be made to get the air as low in the lungs as one 
can. In case a divergence from the true course is noticed, the 
plunger can straighten himself by moving the arms and head, 
very slowly to the opposite side; the movement must be insen- 
sible, though, or it will check the progress almost instantane- 
ously. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 78 

As nine-tenths of those who take up plunging' for distance do 
so with the object of competing, it may be recommended, to 
them to put on as much flesh as possible. The heavier the body 
the greater its force of inertia and the added pounds also add to 
one's buoyancy. 

DIVING. 

The shallow or racing dive, which has been described in con- 
nection with competitive swimming, is the most practical and 
useful of dives. In a race, in plunging, in playing water polo, it 
gives more speed than other dives and in swimming in unknown 
waters it is safe to use, as it keeps the body near the surface 
where the chances of colliding with sunken rocks or obstructions 
are very slight There are only two other dives which need be 
mentioned, the plain front, and the plain back. Once these two 
are mastered perfectly the others will come readily, for they are 
merely these dives comxbined with some acrobatic feat. I will not 
attempt to touch on fancy diving at all, because it would take 
volumes to treat the intricate subject adequately. 

FRONT DIVE. 
In many respects this dive resembles the racing one, only it is 
slower in action and more deliberate, its beauty resting in the 
perfect form and composure of the diver. Stand erect with hands 
at your sides, and slowly allow the body to fall forward without 
moving the feet ; as it passes the balance point swing the arms 
back and bend the knees. Then swing the arms before you, 
above the head, spring out (not down, but right out parallel to 
the water) and, curving the body the least bit downward, enter 
the water almost at right angles, with every muscle set, and the 
arms, head, body and legs forming a straight line, even to the 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, 1912. 
Duke P. Kahanamoku, Honolulu, H. L; winner of 100 meters swim and mem- 
ber of the American relay team which finished second; holder of world's 
record for lOO meters. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 75 

toes which point backward. The angle at which the water is 
struck varies according to the height of the take-off; the higher 
the take-off the straighter the dive. 

In diving from a height, especially if the water is not very- 
deep, it is prudent to arch the back as soon as one strikes, so as 
to bring the body to the surface. In competition, however, or 
when a particularly clean dive wants to be taken, it is best to 
make it very straight and to keep rigid without a move, until 
the feet are covered. In curving the back, the shins and feet are 
made to strike the water, causing a splash that spoils the effect 
of the dive. Particular attention should be paid to the lower 
leg, in diving, as it is almost a universal fault to bend it back as 
the shoulders hit the water. 

For the running high dive follow the same rules only, of 
course, instead of stopping at the take-off, take a good spring 
into the air, having care to spring out and up, as told above. 

BACK DIVE. 
In this dive the swimmer turns his back to the water and 
stands on the edge of the platform, or board, with the ball of 
his feet resting on it, but the heels in space. The arms are 
raised slowly above the head, the body curved backwards and 
allowed to fall over, then as it passes the balance point a good 
spring is taken and turning a graceful curve the body enters the 
water almost at right angles. 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, 1912. 
America's Swimming Team, which won second place in the One-Mile Eelay 
Race. Left to right — Kenneth Hn^zagh, Duke Kahanamoku, Harry Hebner 
aod Perry McGillivray, 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRAET. H 



ORNAMENTAL SWIMMING 



This generic name includes every aquatic feat that can be per- 
formed. Be it easy or difficult, common or uncommon, it comes 
under the heading of ornamental swimming. 

For the man who is at home in the water most of the tricks 
that can be performed are merely a matter of practice and no 
one should neglect to learn a dozen or so, and go through them 
co-ordinately, every now and then, so that if called upon at any 
time one can roll them off one after the other without interrup- 
tions or pauses. They make an interesting exhibiton, always ac- 
ceptable at a swimming meet, and are a constant source of ert- 
joyment to one's less expert friends, I will confine myself to de- 
scribing a few of the best known and the pupil can easily pick up 
the others. 

THE ROLLING LOG. 
One of the easiest and most effective tricks is the rolling log, 
which anyone knowing how to float can learn in a few minutes. 
Take a floating position and locking the thumbs together exert 
the muscles of the side, without moving hands and legs, until 
you turn on your side, then apply the other set and complete 
the circle. At first do it very slowly, for the beauty of the trick 
lies in showing as little movement as possible. After a little 
practice you will be able to turn quite rapidly, as a log that 19 
being rolled, though the muscles hardly move. 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, 1912. 

Arthur McAleenan, Jr.. New York Athletic Club diver. 

at swimming stadium, Stockholm; youngest member 

or the American team. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 79 

SWIMMING LIKE A DOG. 
This style of swimming has no value, except for exhibition 
purposes. The body is held like in the breast stroke, but the 
action of both arms and legs is separately alternate. The hands 
go out in front, palms down, until on three-quarter reach, and 
then come down into the body describing a circle; they move 
front and back only, and do not go out to the sides, as in the 
breast stroke. The legs are moved very much as in bicycling. 
Watch a dog swim and it will be an easy matter to imitate him. 

SOMERSAULTS. 

If performed cleanly and swiftly, somersaults always please the 
spectator and they need no study. For the front somersault 
stand upright, treading water, with arms out to the sides, at 
right angles to the body, palms down. Bend head forward and 
taking a hard stroke force the body over, keeping it curved under 
water until it returns to the surface again. 

For the back somersault, assume the same position, then throw 
back the head, curve the spine, and bend the knees under you ; a 
quick backspring, aided by a good stroke of the hands, will 
cause the body to circle around as on an axle. 

The double somersault, performed by two swimmers together, 
is a very pretty trick. The men get side by side, one floating, the 
other as in swimming, the one's head at the other's feet. Then 
the one on his face submerges himself and placing his head 
between the floating man's ankles he takes hold of the latter's 
head in a similar way. They are thus back to back. They now 
proceed to turn back somersaults and one after the other the 
heads appear over the surface and then disappear as they go 
round. 



0^ 




*JliiMi-lu uAMEs AT 8TOCKHOJLM, SWEDEN, 1912. 

Perry McGillivray, Illinois A.C., Chicago; member of relay team which 

finished second: also winner of 100 yards championship of England. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. gl 

SCULLING. 
This method of propulsion should be practiced with care, for it 
is the keynote of several of the neatest feats of ornamental 
swimming. The body starts in the usual floating position, but 
with arms down at the sides. , Sculling is a circular motion oi 
the hands from the wrist, aided by a slight bending of the el- 
bow. Its action is quite rapid, but I will take the different 
moves apart, so that the beginner may know how to learn it. 
The arms are alongside, palms down, hands open, fingers to- 
gether and wrist straight ; then the wrist is bent a little, the 
hands are twisted up and away from the body, then snapped in- 
ward towards the feet, the elbow helping, describing a circular 
motion much resembling that, of one baling with the hand. 

SWIMMING BACKWARD. 
There are two ways of doing this, floating and swimming. 
In either case the arms are at full reach over the head, the 
position of the body being respectively the same as in floating 
and plunging. Then the hands begin to scull as told above and 
the body will be propelled feet foremost. The legs may either 
move in a slow crawl movement or keep still. 

THE TORPEDO. 
This is only a modification of floating backward. Having as- 
sumed a floating position, the legs are bent at the knees so that 
the lower legs come well to the surface, then the head is thrown 
back, the hands give an upward stroke that buries the head and 
shoulders, and in this position the hands (still above the head) 
i»egin to scull. From above, all that can be seen is the feet glid- 







a -M i?^ « 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 83 

ing through the water. As the body has a tendency to rise in 
this, it is well to give the sculling a slight upward slant; prac- 
tice will tell just how much. 

THE SHIP. 
This is another sculling trick, and not so easy. Body is held 
as in floating, arms alongside. Keeping one leg in the usual po- 
sition, lift the other straight into the air, so that it sticks out 
of the water at right angles to the body as a funnel on a steamer. 
By sculling with a downward slant you will keep afloat and pro- 
pel yourself in either direction. It is a real feat to do the 
schooner, lifting both legs up. 

THE TOP. 

Tread water, then bend up legs until the knees are against 
your chest. Place arms out at right angles and set yourself spin- 
ning by taking strong, fast, alternate strokes. The arms never 
leave the water, being carried back to starting point palm down, 
so that they offer no resistance to the water. 

MONTE CRISTO. 

This is the most sensational of tricks, and can be done by 
anyone used to underwater work. A large sack is provided; 
one in which a man fits comfortably. At its neck, where the 
fastening goes, a hole is made through which two thin pieces of 
cord are passed. When the swimmer gets into the sack he takes 
the two loose ends of the cord in his hand and some one closes 
the mouth, binding it around a couple of times before putting in 
the knots. After a momentary pause the sack is thrown over- 




1, Correct position for Swan Dive; 2, Correct stand for Race Start; 0. This 
illustration is only designed to show the Crawl Stroke position of the hands ; 4, 
Crawl Stroke (in action) position. 

Photos posed by Teddy Cann of the New York Athletic Club and copyrighted by i 
American Press Association, N. Y. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 85 

board with a cry. On reaching the water the imprisoned man 
lets go of the two ends of the cord, which he has been holding, 
and the mouth of the sack can then be loosened with no trouble. 
The swimmer makes his exit and comes to the surface. If the 
water is at all muddy the trick can be made more thrilling by 
staying under water until want of air compels coming to the 
surface. 

There are a hundred other tricks which can be performed, all 
of them entertaining, but every book on swimming is full of 
them and it is an easy matter to work out a good program. 
The few given herein are merely the fundamental ones from 
which most of the others can be evolved. 



"Ted" Cann, who posed for the pictures on oppo- 
site and following pages, was awarded the Congres- 
sional medal for bravery in 1918, his experience and 
bravery, while a member of the United States Naval 
Reserve on board a transatlantic vessel, enabling him 
to dive into the hold of the vessel, which was rapidly 
filling with water, and close a hole sufficiently to 
prevent the vessel from sinking. 



c^ 


i^- 




- «*•**■ 


^te 


s^^^ 


1,1, 






'^^^ '"""'^'^fe^ 


iH^^^^lfeK~ — 


««^ 






2. 


^ 
"— -^.4^ 


^ 


''\ 


a 




V 




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if 




■'■ ■ ■ ■■• . ..-''' 

4, 



H, Position for breathing ; 2, Correct position for Crawl, showing arched back; 
3, Overhand Stroke with Crawl Kick ; 4, Back Overhand Stroke. 

ed by Teddy Cann of the New York Athletic Club and copyrighted by 
American Press Association, N. Y. 



SPALDING'S ATHLBTIC LIBRARY. 87 



SYMPOSIUM ON THE CRAWL STROKE 

Reprinted from the Intercollegiat* Swimming Guide 

Edited by Fred W. Luehring. 

Tke frequency with which American speed swimmers have 
been shattering world records has stimulated world-wide interest 
in the American crawl stroke which is yielding such phenomenal 
driving power. This stroke, which consists of a differentiation 
of its Australian predecessor, has been analyzed with wide varia- 
tions in different parts of the country. In an effort to determine 
whether these differences are real or imagined, and with a view 
to standardizing if possible the constituent elements of this new 
type of stroke, the following carefully worded questions have 
been submitted tq sixteen of our leading swimming experts : 

1. What do you consider the best position of the body 
and the head in this stroke? 

2(a). What, in your judgment, is the best form in the 

arm stroke regarding "reach," "catch," and "pull 

through the water"? 
(b). Should a roll of the body be introduced; and, if so, 

how would you describe it? 
(c). Would you modify 2(a) and 2(b) for short and 

middle distances; and, if so, how? 

3(a). What are your ideas as to the most desirable leg 
movements in the way of the type of kick; rhythm 
to be maintained; width of thrash; position of 
legs, whether close together at knees or spread 
out? 
(b). Would you modify 3(a) for short and middle dis- 
tances; and, if so, how? 



88 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

4. At what time in the stroke should inhalation be 

made, and how often should one breathe for dif- 
ferent distances? 

5. Write briefly on any other important points not 

brought out in the above questions. 

Ihe eleven replies which have been received are reproduced 
in alphabetical order: 

By L. deB. Handley, New York Athletic Club. 

Question No. 1. — In swimming the crawl the body should be 
held as in standing erect, on tip-toe. It should rest on the water 
with a slight slant — shoulders higher than feet— the amount of 
slant being determined, partly, by the buoyancy of the individual. 
It is advisable to increase the slant in sprinting, as the speed at 
which one travels then enables the swimmer to take advantage 
of the hydroplaning principle. The body should roll from side 
to side, in order to facilitate a clean recovery of the arms. The 
roll is slight in sprinting, but should be emphasized more and 
more as the distance to be covered increases. 

Question A^o. 2 — The arm action of the crawl is alternate and 
equidistant. As one arm completes its drives the other should be 
"catching." Each arm is dipped close to the head and a trifle 
to its own side, with elbow raised, and then pushed forward 
under water and downward, so that on attaining comfortable 
full reach the hand is about six or eight inches below surface. 
Here power is applied and the arm h swept vigorously down and 
back, under the body, following a straight line from full reach 
to near thigh, carrying even pressure throughout. When the 
hand is about to touch the thigh, power is relinquished and the 
muscles are completely relaxed. Then the elbow is raised, lift- 
ing the forearm and hand from the water, the arm is now 
carried forward slowly, close to the side, and with elbow still 
raised, so that it will be in the correct position for entering, 
after recovering beyond the shoulder. The action of the arms 
should be slow. It is all important to make the drive energetic 
and the recovery very easy, in relaxation. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 89 

(b). — Answered in No. 1. 

(c). — No change should be made in the arm movements at any- 
time. Only their speed is adjusted to the distance in sight. 
The roll is increased gradually, with the lengthening of course. 

Question No. 3 (a and b). — I am in favor of the trudgeon- 
crawl leg drive for all purposes. It consists of one or two narrow 
scissor kicks, taken at the end of the arm drives, as in the trud- 
geon stroke, and an alternate thrash of the feet introduced be- 
tween scissors. In sprinting, the scissors are reduced in width, 
until they do not exceed the scope of the following thrash, so 
that a pure crawl action (merely distinguished by a more ac- 
cented marking of the rhythm) is obtained. This form of drive 
is performed up and down (perpendicularly), or nearly so. 

As the distance increases and the roll of the body is em- 
phasized accordingly, the width of the scissor is»also enlarged by 
degrees and its direction becomes more and more lateral, so that 
eventually the scissor is performed horizontally, or almost, while 
the intervening thrash continues to be vertical. The scissor 
should never have an opening of more than 16 to 24 inches, this 
margin being allowed for difference in size of swimmer. The 
feet should never rise above water. The heels, at most, should 
appear. 

The number of downward leg movements per full stroke of 
the two arms must be two, four or six. The six-beat is used 
by the world's fastest sprinters, but it is not generally practical 
for middle or long distance swimming. The two-beat is not 
recommendable, except for tests of out-and-out endurance. The 
four-beat is the ideal all 'round stroke and will be found most 
advantageous by the great majority. 

The same principles govern both scissor kick and thrash. It 
should be the aim of the swimmer to avoid all possible resistance 
by (1) refraining from raising either upper leg toward the 
abdomen; (2) avoiding upward bending of the feet; (3) mak- 
ing all the negative movements slowly, in relaxation. 

It will help the student to realize that the leg thrash is nothing 
but a series of reduced scissor kicks and that in using the 



90 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

trudgeon-crawl it is only necessary to widen one of the indi- 
vidual beats to obtain the scissor proper, or major drive. 

This understood, it will be seen that in performing the thrash — 
which should have a scope of about 12 to IS inches — the legs 
are in positive, driving movement for the first half of every 
downward and upward sweep (from full opening until they 
meet), and in negative movement of resistance after passing 
and starting to open again. Obviously, then, the fixst half of 
every beat should be made vigorous, the second in relaxation, 
just as in performing a wider scissor. 

The direction of the thrashing legs should be forward and 
back, as in walking, with no lateral opening. Knees and feet 
should almost brush in passing. The top leg is advanced a 
little, nearly straight at the knee; the under one is bent back, 
about half way to kneeling position. 

Question No. 4. — Breathing is done in the crawl by inhaling 
by mouth while the body rolls on its under shoulder, and ex- 
haling, through the nostrils, underwater, while it is face down. 
Inhalation should be started toward the latter part of the top- 
arm drive and continued through the first half of the recovery 
cf the same arm. The head should not be raised to inhale, but 
only twisted toward the upper shoulder. It is best to breathf 
at every full stroke. Some may possibly profit by inhaling at 
every other stroke when sprinting fifty yards, though it is doubt- 
ful, but there is no question that intermittent breathing, at 
greater distances, is very harmful and exhausting. 
By Harry H. Hindman, Coach of Swimming University of 
Wisconsin. 

While there may be considerable variance of opinion regard- 
ing details of the so-called crawl stroke, there are certain funda- 
mental principles which cannot be disregarded. The problem is 
how to propel the body over or through the water at the 
greatest speed and with the smallest expenditure of energy. 
This involves three things, namely: resistance against the water, 
application of muscular power, and relaxation between periods 
of effort. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 91 

For purposes of clearness the stroke may be described in four 
parts, the Body, the Arms, the Legs, and the Breathing. Let us 
consider them in the above order. 

The Body. 

The body should have a tendency to move over the water in 
the manner of a hydroplane rather than through or against it. 
This tendency may be obtained by holding the head in such a 
♦position that the face only will be buried in the water, with the 
top and back of the head showing above the surface. In the case 
of very buoyant swimmers, the whole head may be carried above 
the surface. The roll of the body should be sufficient to allow 
absolute freedom of movement to the arms. There is no ad- 
vantage to be gained in allowing a greater roll than will make 
possible a powerful pull with the arms and a free and easy 
recovery. Under no circumstances should the body be allowed 
to sway from side to side and thus tend to follow a zig-zag 
course. 

The Arms. 

The catch or start of the pull should be made directly in front 
of the head in line with the body and as far forward as can be 
reached, without stretching, by extending the arm from the 
shoulder. 

The pull should begin when the hand has been lowered five 
or six Inches below the surface of the water and on a line 
directly beneath the center of the body, finishing near the thigh. 
The hand should come out of the water not with a jerk or throw, 
but smoothly and as far back as can be comfortably reached by 
extending the arm from the shoulder. 

The recovery is the rest period for the arms and should be 
characterized by almost complete relaxation. After coming out 
of the water, the arm is raised, the elbow slightly Dent and the 
wrist and hand relaxed. In this position the arm is carried 
forward by a shoulder movement to the position for the next 
catch. The complete arm movement may be briefly described 
as a shoulder rotation with the arm extended. There need be 



92 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

no variance in the form of the arm movements over short and 
middle distances. 

The Legs. 

Probably the most natural, best balanced, and at the same time 
most powerful leg movement is the six-beat kick, that is, six 
kicks with each complete movement of the arms. 

I believe this kick to be more effective and more natural than 
the four-beat and less exhausting than the eight-beat movement. 
The kick should be performed in such a manner that the first 
and fourth kicks amount to narrow scissor kicks, each followed 
by two straight up and down kicks. The right foot should strike 
the water as the left arm finishes its pull and the left foot as the 
right arm completes its movement. The accent in the rhythm 
should come on the first and fourth beats as follows : RIGHT, 
left, right— LEFT, right, left and so on, with the arms finishing 
their respective pulls as described above. The action should 
take place from the hips down and the knees, ankles and feet 
should work freely with all tendency to stiffness eliminated. This 
will allow the feet to point and enable the swimmer to strike 
the water with the top of his feet. The legs should be slightly 
turned in so that the feet tend to "pigeon toedness." The kicks 
should be wide enough to allow free movement and enable the 
swimmer to "feel" the water, but not wide enough to bring the 
feet out of the water. The heels only should be permitted to 
appear above the surface. The actual width in inches would, of 
course, vary somewhat with different swimmers. This kick will 
be found practical over bofti short and middle distances. Over 
middle distances, however, the scissor kicks may be somewhat 
wider. 

Breathing. 

Since proper oxygenation of the blood is so extremely im- 
portant, a swimmer should secure all of the air he needs and 
never allow himself to feel distress by attempting to hold his 
breath over a number of strokes. Except in short sprints, in- 
halation should take place on every stroke. The most convenient 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 93 

and economical period in the stroke to inhale is just at the finish 
of the pull of the arm on the breathing side. This brings the 
breathing, finish of the pull and the first kick together while 
the body is rolled on to the blind or non-breathing side. 

In general the aim should be to develop a smooth, natural, 
easy movement, to eliminate as much resistance as possible, to 
attain the maximum of relaxation between periods of effort and 
to secure the greatest amount of driving force from the energy 
expended. In my own experience the movements so briefly 
described above accomplish these ends. No set rule can be laid 
down for all swimmers to follow, because of individual differ- 
ences such as size, weight, build and natural buoyancy, but the 
general principles will hold for all. 



By George Kistler, Swimming Director University of 
Pennsylvania. 

The crawl stroke is the fastest means today of propelling the 
body of a human being from its own power through the water, 
the peculiarity of this stroke being considerable. 

The only movement similar to other strokes is the arm move- 
ment, the leg being entirely different. However, I am unable to 
say which is really the best method to use in this stroke. There 
are so many variations to this style of swimming and all seem 
good. Because one man can glide through the water faster than 
another is not always through having a better stroke. It is the 
one who has the knack in performing the different movements. 
I have seen poor form swimmers go through the water consider- 
ably faster than one who swam in perfect form. 

Some swim with straight legs, that is, worked or swung from 
the hips; others work from knee down; some from both hips 
and knees ; others take extra wide kicks, some slow, others fast, 
and vice versa; some with arms and legs using slow arms and 
quick thrash, fast arms and slow kick or thrash ; others about 
even all through the stroke; some oscillate the ankles, while 
others keep feet stretched to full extent; some turn toes in at 
each thrash and others keep them pointed. 



94 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

One can look at scores of "crawl swimmers" and scarcely find 
two exactly alike. Some pull arms under stomach, others on 
outside of body, and all at different angles; some use straight 
arms or extended at full length ; others make a rather short reach 
and put them in water in front of head, pushing down on an 
angle to where stroke is started. Some swim with head high out 
of water; others keep face submerged more or less. Breathing 
takes place at different times with different swimmers. In fact, 
it makes little difference which one swims the best stroke. It is 
the one who gets to the goal first, and I am unable to say which 
is really the best crawl stroke, as they are all good. 

The "trudgeon," or double overarm with crawl and scissors 
combined, is practically the best and fastest all around stroke 
today for distance. Our ideas here that the Australian swim- 
mers swim their crawl stroke to a "timing" system is all paper 
talk. The only difference is that they swim with a shade wider 
arm stroke in entering the water, otherwise they are about the 
same as we are, probably using more legwork from the knees 
down than we do. They discovered it from the natives oyer 
there, and Wickham was probably the first to swim this way, 
although the white man, Cavill, seems to have been credited with 
having introduced the stroke in Australia. I have drawings here 
showing that away back the Aborigines used the same identical 
stroke, although without doubt we have enlarged and improved 
on this style of propelling and are probably the fastest lot of 
swimmers in the world today using it for distances from 50 to 
220 yards. 

I myself like the thrash leg stroke. It seems to have more 
power, especially if the knee is bent the slightest bit, than the 
kick used from the knees only. The swimmers who use the side 
or scissor kick pick up the best and fastest at this particular style 
of swimming. They seem to catch on to the kick much easier 
than a breast stroke kicker. Any way, it is mostly a modified 
side or scissor kick. I have two or three men on my team who 
can swim 50 or 60 feet as fast with legs alone as most swimmers 
can go with use of arms and legs. Duke Kahanamoku, the 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 95 

world's champion and fastest swimmer, swims a beautiful leg 
kick or thrash, according to my mind. I trained him for six 
months previous to the Olympic Games in 1912 and the results 
have long been known the world over. His kick was continuous 
and very fast, arms rather slow in comparison to the leg thrash. 
He had no particular timing of the stroke and worked inde- 
pendently. I do not v/ish to go Into the whole affair pro and con 
on anything pertaining to swimming, as to which is really the 
best stroke, as all of them have their good points. 



By Ludy Langer, Captain University of California Swimming 
Team. 

1. Position of the Head and Body. 

The position of the body should be as near on the top of the 
water as is possible with natural ease. I fully believe that the 
drive from the legs in the crawl is of far less importance than 
the fact that the kick keeps the legs and lower part of the body 
near the surface. 

I think the head should not be held too far out of water nor 
too deep, using it if necessary to balance the rest of the body. 
H the legs and back have a tendency to come too far out of 
water the swimmer, by holding his head a little higher, will cause 
his legs to go down a bit and vice versa. 

2. The Arms. 

(a). I find that the natural tendency for most swimmers is 
to bend the arms too much at the elbows and also to lift the 
elbow too high when bringing the arm forward for the next 
stroke. This method loses energy and time. The method which 
I prefer and use is to bring the arm forward with a swing out 
over the water just high enough to clear it. By this method you 
can relax almost every muscle in the arm, bending at the elbow 
cnly enough to give added relaxation to the arm. 

The reach should be straight out from the shoulder and should 
be far out before entering the water, instead of putting the hand 



96 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

in close to the head and extending it under water to full arm's 
length. This saves time and energy. 

(&). There should be very little roll of the body, just enough 
to help the arm clear the water and to elevate the shoulder so 
that the arm may be brought forward with a minimum of effort. 
Too much roll is worse than none at all. 

(c). I think the reach should be extended farther out as the 
distance increases, because there is more time for extending 
the arm and it also lengthens the stroke. The natural tendency 
in the shorter distances is to shorten the reach, but care must 
be taken not to shorten it too much. 

The roll should also be decreased for the shorter races because 
of the extra energy and time it takes to roll from one side to 
the other. For the longer distances the roll should be gradually 
increased with the distance, the limit being reached when the 
arm can be easily brought forward without lifting it too high 
abo\ 2 the water. 

The pull through the water should be such that the swimmer 
has the best hold on the water at all times during the stroke. 
This can be determined by the amount of effort required. It is 
harder to pull the arm through the water when one has a better 
hold on it. The natural but incorrect tendency is to pull the arms 
through the water in either a zig zag fashion or to let them bend 
at the elbows when they are under water, instead of pulling them 
straight through from a point directly out from the shoulders 
and not letting them go under the body or away from it when 
extended straight down. 
3. The Legs. 

(a). I think the leg drive should be learned and used inde- 
pendently from the arm stroke. I think the whole secret to the 
leg drive is to relax the legs absolutely. Most swimmers kick 
too hard, too often, and open their legs too wide. The best way 
to describe the kick I think is to leave the legs as loose as pos- 
sible and then try to shake the ankle off the foot. In this opera- 
tion the legs should not open more than from nine to twelve 
inches and should be absolutely loose at the hips and knees. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRABY. 97 

(b). I think the legs should be kept close together at all times. 
In a short race the kick should be fast but no harder and no 
wider. As the distance becomes longer the kick should become 
slov/er and still as loose as before. 

4. Inhalation. 

This is a question of individual study after the first principles 
have been mastered. As the swimmer rolls so that the side 
which is always in the water when he swims single overhand 
IS the lower side in the water the head should be turned slightly 
more than the roll but not lifted, and the sight should not be 
directed ahead. This places the head in a position most favorable 
for taking in a good big breath at every stroke in a long distance 
swim. Then roll over to the other side and exhale under water 
just before coming back into position to take the next breath. 

In the shorter races a breath may be taken at every stroke 
of a given arm, at every other one, or possibly at even greater 
intervals. This must be decided upon in individual cases by 
careful observations. I might add further that the inhalation 
should be made before the arm which is uppermost starts forward 
for the next stroke. It should be started just as it starts to 
leave the water and ended before it is one-quarter way back to 
the forward position. 

5. MAKING USE OF NATURAL ABILITY and relaxation. 
The biggest mistake is to hold yourself tense while swimming. 

It does not take great effort to propel oneself forward in the 
water. In fact it is just as easy as walking when done in the 
right way. Perfect relaxation in the water is essential before 
one can get the greatest pleasure and ease out of sivimming and 
achieve success in the races. Another essential is to study one- 
self to discover natural £lbility and limitations. To try a method 
of swimming just because some swimmer with a big reputation 
swims that way may be absolutely wrong, for the successful 
swimmer may be successful in spite of numerous faults, or his 
method may be absolutely unsuited to the qualifications and 
limitations of others. 



98 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

Do not expect success in competition without hard work, and 
do not expect success right away, because it takes as much time 
to work up in this sport as in any other form of athletics. Too 
many swimmers lose heart because they do not advance rapidly 
enough, but they should consider that in trying to go forward 
too fast one usually does not pay enough attention to form, a 
shortcoming which prevents maximum efficiency. 

It is my theory to zvork slowly and perfect the form, and 
when the swimming form has been perfected speed will come 
unless there are physical reasons to the contrary. 



By Lionel B. MacKenzie, Coach of Swimming College of 
the City of New York. 

Question No. 1. — The position of the body in the crawl stroke 
should be prone, with a normal extension on the whole body; as 
near parallel to the surface of the water as the above position 
will allow. 

Question No. 2 (a) . — The arms on the reach forward should be 
normally extended at right angles to the width of the shoulders. 
In reaching forward from the finish, of the stroke, the elbow 
should be bent and elevated to enable the hand to clear the sur- 
face of the water. The pull or stroke through the water should 
be downward, until the hand is below the body, then swerving 
inward in a described arc finishing fully extended at the side of 
the body. The describing of the arc inward or under the body 
calls for a slight bend of the arm at the elbow. The pull or 
stroke should be backward, to eliminate as much as possible the 
body pressure and draught in the water. 

(&)._The rolling of the body in the crawl stroke is for the pur- 
pose of breathing. It should be done in one movement of the 
whole body and should take place between each arm stroke. The 
roll should be to one side only, and to that side easiest to breathe 
on. In practice the roll may be changed to the other side, for 
the purpose of developing an equal or uniform thrash with the 
legs. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 99 

(c). — In distance swimming the roll and breathing between 
each arm stroke is recommended, because the more inhalation the 
less strain and fatigue. In short distance swimming the roll and 
breathing takes places when physically required, and varies from 
four or five strokes to every fifteen or twenty. The rapidity of 
the stroke only changes. 

Question No. 3 (a). — The legs should be normally extended 
and their action and that of the feet should be a vertical thrash 
from the hips to the feet. In rolling the body the action of the 
legs and feet ought not to change, but the action of the thrash 
will change to lateral. The thrash should be confined to that 
width which is between the points of resistance, encountered 
when the legs are raised too high or submerged too deep. The 
thrash with the minimum resistance is essential. The rhythm 
of the thrash should be that which can be controlled in co- 
ordination with the arm stroke. 

(b). — The above stroke should be used for short and middle 
distances. 

Question No. 4. — Inhalation should take place when the body 
has rolled to the side. This takes place between each arm stroke. 
In distance swimming the above is recommended. In short dis- 
tances or sprints, at those intervals suitable to the endurance of 
the individual. The holding of the breath combined with the 
physical action between intervals of breathing is very fatiguing 
and is the general cause of exhaustion in sprint races. 

Many swimmers have to use a great deal of their stroke at 
certain points of fatigue, in order to keep the body afloat. It has 
been noted that many of our fast swimmers are very buoyant, 
thereby using the greater part of the stroke for propulsion. 
Many swimmers exhale under water or before the roll and 
inhale on the roll. It has been especially noted, in cases of 
fatigue, that during this short interval of exhaling and inhaling 
the body has increased its draught, and caused considerable effort 
in getting the face above water on the roll. 



100 SPALDING'S ATITLETIC LIBRARY. 

By Edward J. Manley, Coach of Swimming University of 
Illinois. 

The body is kept as close to the surface of the water as pos- 
sible. Place the head in such a position as to allow the water 
to strike just above the eyes. 

The average swimmer should take a long arm stroke, extend 
the arms, and "catch" with the hand straight in front. Buoyant 
swimmers find it well to slide the hand in the water just a little 
before the arm has reached its full length. Bring each arm 
straight down with a decided pull until it is even with the hip. 
A sHght roll from the waist up should then be made to allow 
the clearing of the arms from the water. Then the arm should 
be brought out with a little jerk from the shoulder, bent slightly 
at the elbow, and again thrust forward. 

The legs should be extended, feet pointed and turned inward, 
legs about a foot or little more apart from the knees down. Do 
not hold the legs rigid. Work the legs up and down alternately, 
moving the whole leg and keeping knees bent very little. In 
the downward thrash, the legs should work independent of arms 
in most cases. 

The inhalation should be taken as the arm is lifted from the 
Water. A breath should be taken at every other arm stroke for 
a distance swim. For a short distance, say a 40 or 50-yard swim, 
inhalation should be made about every sixth complete stroke. 

The crawl stroke of today is a very hard stroke to describe as 
there are many ways of swimming it. You cannot apply the 
same style to every swimmer, there being hardly two persons 
who can use the stroke alike. It is all on the same principle, 
but the build of a man will change the desired form a great deal. 
It is up to the coach to study his man and frame up a stroke 
to fit his build. 

By Matthew Mann, Formerly Swimming Supervisor Town 

of Brookline; Former Coach of Harvard 'Varsity and 

U. S. Naval Academy Teams; Now with New York A. C. 

I am a crawl stroke man from the beginning to the end. I 

teach the crawl as an elementary stroke and have done so much 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 101 

better than ever I could have done with the breast stroke that I 
never teach anything else. Referring to the crawl, for the racing 
man: 

Question No. 1. — The best position for the crawl stroke swim- 
mer is perfectly flat with the face in the water, only turning the 
head to take a breath. The reason of this position is that there 
is less resistance than if you keep your head up or if you roll 
to get your breath. 

Question No. 2 (o). — The best reach of the arm is so that 
your hand, beginning with the tips of the fingers, is in the water 
before any part of the arm is in, meaning that the fingers are 
commencing the drive before the elbow begins to resist. It is 
not a pull of the arm but more of a drive. It is not possible to 
pull the water, but you throw your shoulder forward to where 
your hand takes the water, making it more after the form of a 
lift of the body to the hand, not pulling the hand to the side. 

(b). — A swimmer can roll when swimming a 220/ or over by 
just reaching a little deeper into the water with the drive; it 
enables him to get a breath easier, also it brings in a distinct 
small side kick, which is quite an asset in the longer swims. 

Question No. 3. — Both the arm and the leg kick are changed in 
the distances. In the sprint the body is kept perfectly flat, the 
arms taking the water a little in front of the head, but out at 
the side. They are forced down to a point just underneath the 
thigh; there they are lifted with the relaxing of the muscles in 
the elbow, and brought forward with a distinct shoulder action. 
The kick is a good thrash with a loose knee snap, so that the 
feet come out of the water. The kick is perfectly balanced, 
each leg doing its share, the feet lifting out of the water any- 
where from one to four inches. The kick is also an independent 
motion, each swimmer having a little difference in the motion. 

There is no perfect time that you could recommend to any 
collection of swimmers. They will find out the correct time to 
«.pply their kick as they proceed in proficiency. Some swimmers 
kick very fast, while others kick very slow. . 



102 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

The crawl stroke for distances over 100 yards should be swum 
with a roll and a slight side kick, not bending the knees at all; 
cf course keep muscles relaxed so that they don't cramp. The 
feet should be used as if you were on your toes all the time, and 
also try to get the habit of toeing inwards. 

Question No. 4. — The breathing is one of the chief reasons 
why so many men fall down on the crawl; they do not pay 
enough attention to it, and when they do meet someone who 
does breathe right they are usually second. 

The best way to insure getting your breath at all times is to 
stand in the pool and first of all take in a breath, then put your 
head under water, then turn your head to the side; do not lift 
up the head, try and keep the ear in the water; just as you turn 
the head begin exhaling through the nose; when the mouth is 
just clear of the water open it wide and take in a quick breath 
through the mouth, then repeat, making sure that head does not 
lift, but only turns. This should be done very slowly at first. 
When you feel it is coming all right, start to swim slowly and 
turn your head the same way; do not hurry, or you will get too 
much water, but take it easy, until you are sure that you can 
get all the breath you need. 

It is best at all times to take a breath on every stroke, when 
a man is breathing right. However, until he gets it right, the 
breath should be taken in a sprint race every three or four 
strokes, but not longer, as that would put too great a task on the 
heart. Special work should be given all men to help their breath- 
ing, for the man who breathes best will win nine times out of 
ten. 

By R. F. Nelligan, Associate Professor Hygiene and Physical 
Education at Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. 

Position of Body. 

In executing the crawl stroke the position of the head and 
tody are important. If the abdomen is drawn in and the baclc 
humped up, the under part of the body will present a concave 
surface to the water, a faulty position which tends to plunge the 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBEAEY. 103 

head and feet too low, thus hindering the swimmer. If the back 
is slightly concave these faults disappear, the legs work to better 
advantage, the head being not so deeply submerged enables the 
swimmer to look ahead and to right and left more easily and also 
to breathe more freely than is possible with the head too low 
in the water. This latter position is also more advantageous to a 
powerful use of the arms. 
Arms. 

The best results from the use of the arms in the attainment 
of speed may be described as follows: With the wrist slightly 
bent the hand is thrust forward and slightly downward entering 
the water about three-quarters of the distance between the 
shoulder and the extreme reach, with the elbow raised and bent 
a little. If the elbow is not raised the upper arm comes in con- 
tact with the waves in the negative part of the arm movement and 
the swimmer is retarded. The extreme reach or the straighten- 
ing of the arm takes place under water before the arm is pulled 
back in the positive or catch part of the stroke and therefore care 
must be taken by keeping the wrist at such an angle that the arm 
is straightened without hindering the swimmer. This requires a 
slight bending downward at the wrist. When done correctly it 
will be found that when the^pull commences the hand will be 
about six inches below the surface. Each arm should enter in 
front of the shoulder and the body should roll slightly toward the 
pulling arm when going at top speed in order to apply full power. 
In distance work the roll is more pronounced, and the hand 
enters the water more nearly at the full reach. In sprinting or 
in distance swimming it will be readily seen that if the arm 
and hand forming a straight line is laid flat on the surface at the 
full reach, the pull really does not commence until the arm is 
well beneath the surface, and to get it there in this way is too 
slow and tiring to be of value. The arm should be pulled back 
well under the body and this results in a slight outward sweep 
of the arm at the end of the pull as the body rolls face down. 
When pulled nearly all the way through the arm leaves the water 
cleanly. It is a common mistake to raise the arm before the stroke 



104 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

is finished — i. e., before the hand reaches the hip or possibly a 
little farther back. In reaching forward for a new stroke the arms 
should bend at the elbow rather than swing around at the sides so 
as not to tire the shoulders. Both pull and recovery should be well 
inboard for the full application of power and conservation of 
strength, and this means endurance and speed. Raising and bend- 
ing the elbow results in a clean, smooth, straight, and easy re- 
covery, and a smoother roll and application of power, than is 
possible with a straight arm swing around at the sides or over- 
head. The roll should come wholly from the swing of the arms 
rather than from a spasmodic movement of the body. 

Breathing. 

Inhalation should be through the mouth in speed swimming. 
By turning the head this becomes easy with practice. One who 
naturally swims on the right side should turn the head upward to 
the left just enough to enable him to fill the lungs. Exhalation 
bhould take place under water as the body rolls forward. The 
breath should never be held even in a 50 yards race. The writer 
has coached swimmers who ignored this advice for a time and 
who thought it advisable to swim face downward for the first 
25 yards of a 50 yards race, but in every instance the time was 
faster when the swimmer was prevailed upon to breathe on every 
.stroke. Swimming short races is hard work and it is physiologi- 
cally wrong to hold the breath in a 50 yards race or in any race 
over 25 yards. 

Kick. 

The kick seems to be the bone of contention with coaches. 
When first introduced into this country I very enthusiastically 
commenced experimenting after reading everything I could find 
about it. First I thought it must be a rapid movement of the 
feet, somewhat similar to pedalling a bicycle with a short crank 
and without co-ordination with the arm movement. Lying flat 
on the water with arms extended I found that I could make con- 
siderable headway in this manner with the feet alone. The arms 
were then brought into action, but the legs tired so readily and 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 106 

had to be used so violently to be of any use for propulsion when 
the arms were working that I became disgusted. After seeing 
the best exponents of the crawl in this country I was convinced 
that the pedalling movement was useless. They seemed to get 
propulsion from a downward and upward thrash of the legs, with 
the emphasis on the downward movement. The width of the 
kick varied greatly and it was soon observed that the swimmers 
using the shorter kick, other things being equal, seemed to be 
able not only to attain greater speed but also to crawl a longer 
distance without becoming exhausted. The quickest way to tire 
an athlete is to make him use the legs vigorously and this led 
the writer to believe that the narrow kick was the better. Another 
reason in favor of the narrow kick seemed to be that the arms 
worked faster when an attempt was made to co-ordinate the arms 
and legs' movements. It certainly slows the all important arms' 
movements to kick wide and it tires the swimmer. It sooa 
dawned on the writer that in most cases the would-be crawl 
stroke swimmer placed too great a value on the legs as a means 
of propulsion, and that a wide thrash was not only tiring but 
acted somewhat as a drag also. About this time it was reported 
that Handy of Chicago used a legless crawl, but experiments with 
this proved that it was hard to get a fast quick catch without a 
leg thrash. It then seemed to the writer that the principal use 
cf the thrash was to enable the swimmer to use the arms to good 
advantage by steadying him and this did not require a wide slow- 
ing and tiring leg movement, but rather a sharp downward short 
beat, principally from the hips, repeated with each leg to both 
arm movements; in other words, four kicks to two arm move- 
ments complete the stroke. Swimming the trudgeon stroke with 
a very short scissors kick and adding a one, two, downward 
beat with the legs when the body rolls face downward is a form 
of stroke we hear much about lately, and it may, after all, be the 
best speed stroke. It is certainly easy to teach it to a man who 
swims the trudgeon correctly. All that is necessary is to get him 
to reduce the width of the kick in the trudge. He will feel 
instantly that the speed of the arms increases, and to keep his 



106 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRABT. 

balance for a firm catch he will almost instinctively add the one, 
two, downward thrash between scissors kicks, as the body turns 
face downward. This gives to the stroke rhythm. The writer 
used this form of stroke for years, and after the swimmer 
attained it he found that the same movement, done without turn- 
ing the hips, or at least turning them but very little, resulted in 
an upward and downward thrash or, in other words, a straight 
crawl. Some preferred the combination trudge and crawl while 
ethers liked the straight crawl. In the straight crawl the body is 
turned principally from the waist, while in the combination the 
hips turn with the body as the scissors kick is executed. I am 
unable to say which is the better method for the average swim- 
mer because I have not sufficient data to prove the superiority 
of either stroke. At present I rather favor the straight crawl. 
In any form of crawl the kick should be narrow — just enough 
to enable the swimmer to get a firm catch. In distance work the 
kick is naturally a little wider than it is when going at top speed. 
The toes should be pointed well backward and slightly inward 
in both methods, and the kick should be so narrow that the feet 
remain under water. The legs should be extended backward 
naturally. Slight variations from the above methods are notice- 
able in all large swimming meets. 



By Frank J. Sullivan, Coach Princeton University. 

There are so many theories regarding the crawl stroke ad- 
vanced by coaches throughout the country, no ©ne of which will 
confirm another, that it seems foolish to advance any one theory 
as the correct one. At the present time there are at least ten 
different styles of crawl, each having a large following. There 
is only one question that all American coaches agree on and 
that is, that the original crawl or Australian crawl, as it is com- 
monly called, is obsolete today. The American crawl of the four, 
six or eight-beat kick has proved so successful over the users 
of the original method that Australian, German and English 
swimmers are endeavoring to master the intricacies of the 
American stroke. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 107 

There is no doubt in my mind that the stroke which pro- 
duces the best results is the best stroke. It is plainly evident 
then, that to find the best stroke, one must analyze the method 
used by Hebner, McGillivray, Langer, Raithel, Vosburgh, Voll- 
mer and other >vtar swimmers of this country. To do this as 
it should be done would fill a volume, but the several basic prin- 
ciples may be written in a few words. 

Careful observation on the part of several of our leading 
swimming authorities, as to the stroke used by the above men- 
tioned swimmers, has brought out the conclusion that these 
swimmers use what is now generally known as the "trudgeon 
crawl." It is this type that I recommend to all swimmers, for it 
can be used for any distance — from 50 yards to ten miles. 

I have had the privilege of reading in the manuscript Mr. 
Handley's article, which is contained in this symposium, in which 
he describes the trudgeon crawl in a much better way than I 
could, so to go into detail about this stroke would be merely 
a repetition of ideas which already have been advanced satis- 
factorily in Mr. Handley's well written article. 



By Thomas G. Whitaker, Coach of Swimming Misssouri 
Athletic Association, St. Louis, Mo. 

Question No. 1. — Keep the body as high on the surface as 
possible. The head should be held so that the water reaches 
the eye-brows. 

Question No. 2 (a). — Keep the elbows slightly bent. The 
hand goes in before elbow, in front of head — not crossing over 
to opposite side, however. The arm should be straightened out 
about one foot under surface. Pull deep and down center line 
of body, making the recovery to the side. 

(&). — In sprints have the body as flat as possible. Employ no 
more roll than is occasioned by using shoulders forcibly. 

(c). — Yes. (2-b) is answered in previous question regarding 
sprinting. For distance swims, lengthen arm reach slightly, in- 
crease roll, with complete relaxation between strokes. 



108 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

Question No. 3 (a). — For sprints a fast, powerful kick with 
as fast a leg beat as is possible to the complete arm stroke, or 
cycle — that is, to two arm movements the maximum appears to 
be six to eight leg beats, arrived at unconsciously with most 
swimmers. Width of thrash should be six inches to a foot. 
Keep legs loose all over and not more than a foot apart. 

(6). — Yes. As fast a beat as possible for short distances. 
For middle distances either a four-beat kick to two arm strokes^ 
or a two-beat kick — left leg on left arm pull and vice versa. 
Or a new kick I've worked on, in which a decided roll is takea 
on each arm pull. For instance, when on the left side, the left 
leg is underneath and delivers a sort of scissors kick and vice 
versa on the right side. 

Question No. 4. — Breathing should be indulged in during the 
last half of the stroke and first part of recovery. Up to 50 yards 
breathe as little as possible, after that on every complete stroke. 



By Joseph H. White, Swimming Instructor University of 
Chicago. 

Question No. 1. — Keep the body horizontal and as near the 
surface of the water as possible with head slightly submerged. 

Question No. 2 (a). — iReach as far forward as possible raising 
the elbow high enough to enable the hand to clear the water. 
Catch with the minimum of splash as far in front of the head as 
possible and pull through the water directly under the body^ 
carrying arm stroke as far back as possible. 

(&). — A slight roll of the body which enables one to get the 
maximum reach both forward and backward with the least ex- 
penditure of energy is desirable. 

(c). — Modify 2-a in the short dashes by bending the arm very 
slightly, which, in my judgment, permits of a little more rapid 
movement of the arms. Modify 2-b in the dashes by a less 
frequent roll, as the swim is soon over and the need for air is 
less apparent. 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 109 

Question No, 3 (a). — The most desirable leg movement is a 
kick or thrash with the legs alternately about ten inches or twelve 
inches in length, legs slightly bent at the knees; toes pointed. 
The thrash is made by straightening the leg, together with a slight 
movement at the hip. Legs should not be spread except as above 
noted. 

The rhythm to be maintained should depend upon the length 
of the swim entirely, for the dashes (50 to 100 yards) a rapid 
thrash, which should be moderated for the middle distances (220 
and 440 yards), and must be still more moderated for the longer 
distances. 

Question Nfo. 4. — Inhalation should take place for the swimmer 
who takes his breath while on his right side as the left arm is 
being carried forward, or, as his right arm is carried forward 
provided he breathes more naturally on his left side, a matter of 
individuality entirely. 

How often one should breathe for the different distances varies 
so with each individual that it makes it very difficult to even 
suggest how often one should breathe. I should say, however, 
generally speaking, that for the 40 and 50 yards (assuming the 
tank to be 20 or 25 yards in length) breathing twice going the 
first length and three or four should be considered the limit for 
the second length. In the hundred yards a breath with every 
fourth stroke, counting one with each arm. In distances over 
100 yards a breath with every second stroke, counting as above^ 
one with each arm. 

Question No. 5. — Exhaling under the water through the nose. 




OLYMPIC GAMES AT STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 
Australasian relay team; winners of 800 meters relay race; 
2. Cecil Healy, and 



man 
Dion, 



New Zealand. 



H. H. Hardwick. Sydney, 



1912. 

1, Leslie Board- 
N.S.W.; 4, M. Cham- 



»PALJ)1J^G'JS ATHLETIC LIBRARY. HI 



IS IT HARDER TO SWIM IN FRESH WATER 
THAN IN SALT WATER? 

The following from the Sydney Referee, the great sport 
authority of the Antipodes, is of interest to American swimmers, 
who have often asked the same question. 

The idea that fresh water is harder to swim in than salt water 
is not altogether correct, though held by many prominent swim- 
mers. It amounts to the question of what one is accustomed to. 
A frequenter of salt-water basins only would find, for a time,, 
that fresh water swims required a much harder effort, as there 
is no question that the ocean water is much more buoyant. The 
buoyancy increases with the amount of salt until the point is 
reached, as it is at Salt Lake, Utah, U. S. A., where swimmers, 
have found it impossible to sink, no matter what tricks are tried. 
On the other hand, regular fresh-water swimmers find a similar 
difficulty in accustoming themselves to salt-water conditions, 
but on the whole fit in much more quickly and effectively than 
vice versa. Cases are also known where great improvement has 
been shown by fresh-water swimmers as the result of changing 
their environments and having regular salt-water swims. On the 
other hand, although in most cases salt-water swimmers have- 
been able to repeat their best times in fresh water, it is very 
rarely that they better them. This did actually happen with the 
Australian team in Stockholm to the last Olympic Games, but 
six full weeks of preparation on the spot was responsible for 
this. In distances the trouble in showing up as well as in salt 
water is harder in fresh. 

When the Americans, through their great swimmer, C. M. 
Daniels, copied the Australian crawl stroke, it was persevered 
with for a time, but eventually had to be remodelled on account 
of the unsuitability for the short fresh-water tanks that most 
of the swimming in Eastern United States is performed in. The 



112 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 

re-modelling was necessary owing to the leg movement being too 
deliberate and comparatively slow where the natural buoyancy of 
the water was not there to keep the legs at the surface. In salt 
water the alternate arm and leg movement acted all right, as the 
balance of body, shoulders, legs, and feet was well maintained 
near the surface. In fresh water the movement was not rapid 
enough to prevent the legs from sinking. Daniels and the various 
American coaches studied the thing out, and adopted a modified 
form of what we now refer to as the continuous crawl kick, 
which not only overcame the sinking of the legs trouble, but also 
added pace, as has been shown by the remarkable speed of 
Kah^namoku, McGillivray, Rathiel, Vollmer, Hebner, Cunha, and 
others. The legs make very little movement — just a slight open- 
ing and shutting; but the feet and ankles are continuously busy. 
The continuous movement is purely a fresh-water creation, but 
now generally adopted as the short-distance speediest stroke. 

The trudgeon crawl is another evolution in the leg work. At 
present the continuous and independent leg and feet work is 
exhausting for all when the middle distances and longer distances 
are tried. One could see this coming as the result of fresh-water 
operations. Our own Australian swimmers, Beaurepaire and 
Hardwick, came back after a European tour with something that 
seemed to show the necessity of combining the trudgeon and the 
crawl characteristics. The scissors kick of the trudge gave im- 
petus, the flipping of the feet in between the trudgeon kicks main- 
tained the balance and the floating of the feet near the surface. 
Any dropping of the legs will be at once recognized as a retard- 
ing influence. Thus Frank Beaurepaire, with his nice, easy, con- 
tinuous stroke, found the added crawl kick a great advantage 
in fresh water. He even found them useful in salt water after 
his return, and Hardwick did the same. However, the trudgeon 
kicks of both were still maintained in all its bigness and wideness 
of movement. The Americans have bettered that by adopting a 
short, decisive scissors movement and two or three rapid beats of 
the feet in between. There is no turning of the body almost 
completely on the side as in the old trudgeon. Albert Barry 



SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRARY. 113 

used this short, quick scissors movement in all his great swims; 
it undoubtedly adds pace, and, unlike the older and greater 
spreading kick, is quickly executed without any interference with 
other things that make for pace. 

Many swimmers here have mastered the full trudgeon crawl, 
or rather the single trudgeon crawl, as defined as such by the 
American students of the sport. It provides for the quick scis- 
sors kick referred to, with the legs almost straight. No bending 
of one leg, as in the old trudge. Then in between two or three 
beats of the foot in consecutive crawl-kick fashion. All the time 
the body retains its even balance and steady perpetual motion. 
A slight rolling of shoulders and body down to the hips gives 
the driving power to the arm-work, and the various moves of 
the stroke tend to give a certain respite to the legs that makes 
longer distances possible in steady fashion, whereas the con- 
tinuous alone is too exhausting as yet. Some swimmers show the 
double trudgeon crawl, which provides for a short trudgeon 
scissors kick on both sides, with the beats of the continuous 
crawl in between. In short distances the effects are not notice- 
able, but in the slower-moving thrashes of a long swim, the 
double kick is found to be of advantage. 

A point that must be observed by learners is that the scissors 
kick is a narrow one, and must be performed in an almost hori- 
zontal position. There is just the slight roll as in our own style 
of crawl, which brings the body and legs just slightly out of the 
horizontal position as we put in one arm and kick the opposite 
leg. That is the time for the narrow scissors kick, and as the 
body returns to an even keel the few beats of the continuous 
crawl are used. The double trudgeon crawl will, of course, need 
the slight roll to both sides, and the narrow scissors kick, but it 
must be narrow. 

Both are fresh water creations, so that swimmers under the 
same. circumstances need not hesitate to try them. In answer to 
a youthful inquirer, I think that the continuous crawl for 
sprints and the trudgeon crawl for middle and longer distances 
are undoubtedly the strokes that all young swimmers should 



/ 



114 SPALDING'S ATHLETIC LIBRAR-JC. 

master if they wish to make speedy swims, either in fresh or 
salt. Both are now in universal adoption in the United States, 
and the results achieved have been remarkable. The trudgeon 
crawl may be used in sprinting also, but unless, like Barry, one 
concentrates on the short scissors kick and leaves the crawl beats 
alone, the movements are so quickly executed that much of the 
advantage is lost. 



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STORES IN ALL LARGE CITIES 



FOII COMPLETE LIST OF STMES 
SEE INSIDE FRONT COVa | 
OFTHISBOro 



[prices subject to CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE. F«r CmJU. pri«M m* tpMiU CMadiM C«ul«vg| 




pM*'<« 



N TRACK AND FIELD 
sports Spalding implements 
have been pre-eminent. 
From the running shoes for 
Olympic winners to the mis- 
siles of hammer and weight 
throwers, Spalding goods are 
always in evidence when 
championships are won or 
records made. 



HJmH. 






i 



The ruling bodies in European track and 
field athletics certify to Spalding Quality in 
the recognition of Spalding implements for 
use in Olympic and Championship contests. 



Don't be led astray by the 
false cry of cheapness and 
"just as good." Remember 
that superiority in competi- 
tion is the result of Quality 
in equipment. 



jj PALDING 



-^.^.e book covers every Athletic Spc 
and IS Official and Standard 




;;'^,o. SPALDING p.^ 
ATHLETIC GOODS 



leaauiaaa 



AG Spalding ® Bros. 



NLWARK. 
PHILADEI 
B O S 1 O N 



CHICAGO 
INDIANAPO 
IIA ST.LOUIS 
DETROIT 



ALBANy 
ROCHESTER 
SYRACUSE 
PITTSBURGH 



COLUMBUS 
ATLANTA 
LOUISVILLE 



^N" FRANCISCO 
lAKLAND 
LOS ANGEI ES 
SEATTI.E 
PORTLAND 
) SALT LAKE C^T 
. DENVER / 
KANSAS CIT' 



BALTIMORE 



DALLAS 



MINNEAPOLIS 



D^i^iiriuxt, UALLAi) riiNNLAPQLIS DES MOIl 

WASHINGTON NEW ORLEANS ST, PAUI 

LONDON. ENGLAND MONTREAL. C A N, TORONTO C^ 

LIVERPOOL. ENGLAND EDINBURGH. SCOTLAND 

BIRMINGHAM. ENGLAND GLASGOW. SCOTLAND 

MANCHESTER. ENGLAND PARIS, FRANCE 

BRISTOL. ENGLAND SYDNEY. AUSTRAL 

Facforirs c^n^d and opcrorcd by A G S fxaldtn^ 6. Bros, and v^hero all of J^ald 

Trade .Marked Athfctic Goods orr made are located i' n the fnllnvvlnn r-rflr 



NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO CHICOPEC:, MAS 
BROOKLYN BOSTON PHIIiADEIiPHIA LONDON, ENG. 



